THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


,.  JRANCH, 

OF  CALiFORNlA. 

IBRARY, 


OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


jUM^ 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

HEW  YORK   •    BOSTON  •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Lro. 

TORONTO 


OUTLINES  OF  CHILD 
STUDY 

A  Manual  for  Parents 
and  Teachers 


EDITED  BY 

BENJAMIN  C.  GRUENBERG 

FOR 

THE  FEDERATION  FOR  CHILD  STUDY 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 
BY 

EDWARD  L,  THORNDIKE 


il3eto  ipotk 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1923 

AU  rightt  reterved 

4935  3 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


COPTHIQHT,  1922 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1922. 


TO 
BIRD  STEIN  GANS 

WHOSE   INSPIRATION  kND   UNTIRING   DEVOTION 

MADE   POSSIBLE  THE   EXISTENCE   AND 

CONTINUED   GROWTH   OF 

THE  FEDERATION  FOR  CHILD  STUDY 

THIS   BOOK   IS   GRATEFULLY   DEDICATED 
BY  HER  FELLOW  WORKERS 


INTRODUCTION 

It  is  a  privilege  to  introduce  to  those  unacquainted 

with  it  one  aspect  of  the  work  of  the  Federation  for 

Child  Study.     Of  all  the  organizations  which  have 

sought  to  stimulate  parents  to  study  and  know  their 

children,  the  Federation  has  had  probably  the  most 

X  experience.     For  over  a  score  of  years  its  leaders  have 

J*   been  guiding  the  reading  and  discussion  of  groups  of 

,    parents  and  teachers,  but  especially  of  parents.     Upon 

^^  their  experience  are  based  these   Outhnes  of   Child 

Study.     The  arrangement  is  topical;  and  each  topic  is 

presented  by  (1)  a  statement  of  the  general  state  of 

"iji    knowledge  of  the  topic,  (2)  an  outline  which  lists  the 

■^   detailed  facts  and  problems  concerning  which  there  is 

information  available,  and  (3)  a  list  of  helpfully  graded 

references,  ranging  from  attractive  popular  articles  to 

^  technical  monographs. 

a  The  treatment  is  comprehensive,  both  in  the  topics 
•^  chosen  and  in  the  outUne  and  references  for  each. 
Especially  valuable  are  the  sections  on  concrete  aspects 
of  human  behavior,  such  as  Toys,  Manners,  The  Use 
of  Money,  Pets  and  Plants,  and  Hobbies,  which  the 
ordinary  manuals  of  Child  Study  have  relatively 
neglected.  The  treatment  is  modem;  mental  tests, 
psycho-analysis  and  the  conditioned  reflex  receiving 
due  (some  conservative  critics  may  think,  undue) 
attention,  and  recent  work  in  all  lines  being  considered. 

vii 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

Suitable  connections  with  the  general  sciences  of 
human  nature  are  made  so  that  the  student  who  follows 
the  Outlines  for  any  dozen  or  so  of  topics  is  almost 
certain  to  be  made  acquainted  with  representative 
scientific  work  in  biology,  psychology  and  sociology. 

Many  earnest  parents  and  teachers  will  use  this  book 
and  thank  The  Federation  for  Child  Study  and  Dr. 
Gruenberg  for  it. 

Edward  L.  Thorndike. 


PREFACE 

Every  thoughtful  person  who  has  to  deal  with 
children  comes  sooner  or  later  to  realize  that  most  of 
his  acts,  as  well  as  most  of  the  children's  acts,  arise,  at 
least  in  part,  from  blind  impulse.  Some  of  these  acts 
we  recognize  to  be,  if  not  harmful  or  foolish,  at  least 
futile  or  irrelevant.  But,  since  we  believe  that  what- 
ever we  do  for  the  child  or  to  the  child  should  have  a 
purpose  in  relation  to  his  education,  his  development, 
his  adjustment',  we  are  driven  by  considerations  of  self- 
esteem  to  justify  our  conduct  —  to  rationaUze  it,  as  the 
psychiatrists  say  —  by  attributing  to  it  some  approved 
purpose.  We  say,  for  example,  that  punishment,  often 
but  a  manifestation  of  bad  temper,  is  designed  to  teach 
the  child  a  lesson;  we  say  that  our  dismissal  of  the 
importunate  questioner  is  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
him  to  be  considerate  of  busy  people,  and  so  on.  The 
Federation  for  Child  Study  takes  the  position  that  we 
must  make  deUberate  and  systematic  effort  to  replace 
impulse  with  purpose  in  all  our  deaHngs  with  children. 
We  ought  to  know  what  we  are  driving  at,  we  ought  to 
know  how  our  ends  are  to  be  achieved;  we  should  not 
be  content  merely  to  carry  on,  merely  to  drive,  for  that 
is  futile,  and  often  pernicious. 

Every  attempt  to  substitute  rational  treatment  of 
children  for  rationaUzed  impulse  raises  the  question  of 
what  is  sound  practise.  And  in  no  field  are  there 
more  controversial  issues.     Here  everybody  feels  free 

ix 


X  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

to  have  opinions  and  nobody  hesitates  to  give  expres- 
sion to  his  own.  And  with  so  many  opinions  to  draw 
upon,  so  many  that  are  supported  by  reputable  names, 
it  is  very  easy  to  continue  upon  our  impulsive  careers 
unchecked,  for  we  have  simply  to  claim  that  we  are 
following  this  or  that  set  of  "methods"  to  make  our 
conduct  appear  calculated  and  piurposeful,  not  to  say 
"scientific."  The  Federation  has  undertaken  to  separ- 
ate usable  knowledge  from  mere  opinion.  This  does 
not  mean  that  opinions  can  be  wholly  disregarded,  for 
they  cannot.  Vast  as  is  the  accumulation  of  facts 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  child,  there  are  many 
questions  about  him  that  cannot  to-day  be  definitely 
answered.  The  point  is,  first,  to  make  use  of  such 
knowledge  as  is  available,  and  second,  to  recognize 
where  knowledge  is  lacking  and  where,  therefore,  we  are 
using  the  best  judgments  to  be  had. 

Finally,  we  recognize  that  between  the  child  and 
his  mentors  there  is  always  and  everywhere  —  and 
necessarily  —  more  or  less  friction.  How  much  of  this 
is  inherent  in  the  nature  of  man  and  of  his  young,  and 
how  much  of  it  is  potentially  within  the  control  of 
intelligence,  we  do  not  know;  but  we  are  led  to  hope  that 
it  is  not  entirely  unavoidable  by  observing  the  experience 
of  those  who  do  actually  manage  to  live  with  growing 
children  under  conditions  of  peace  and  friendship. 
The  Federation  for  Child  Study  has  assumed  that 
responsibihty  for  reducing  this  friction  to  a  minimum 
rests  with  the  elders,  and  that  an  essential  element  in 
deahng  with  the  difficulties  is  a  sympathetic  under- 
standing by  them  of  the  younger  folks. 

The  aims  of  the  Federation  may  thus  be  sum- 


OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY  xi 

marized  as  being  the  substitution  of  purpose  for 
impulse  or  inertia,  of  knowledge  for  uncritical  opinion, 
and  of  sympathy  for  friction  and  antagonism.  To 
further  these  aims  the  members  of  the  groups  have 
devoted  themselves  to  a  study  of  the  characteristics  of 
children  in  their  various  stages  of  development,  of  the 
forces  and  experiences  that  modify  their  conduct  and 
attitudes,  of  the  conditions  favorable  to  their  whole- 
some development.  This  study  has  been  far  from  aca- 
demic. Every  individual  has  been  concerned  with  real 
problems  of  real  children.  The  subject-matter  of  this 
study  has  been  children's  behavior  —  or  misbehavior  — 
and  elders'  perplexities.  Moreover,  since  knowing 
what  'twere  well  to  do  is  by  no  means  a  guarantee  of 
its  being  done,  the  members  of  these  study  groups  have 
had  much  more  to  acquire  than  the  conclusions  of  their 
discussions  or  the  doctrines  of  some  authority.  The 
value  of  the  methods  developed  may  be  inferred  from 
the  many  practical  results  which  the  members  feel  they 
have  attained  in  their  own  families  or  schools;  but  the 
outstanding  value  of  the  discussions  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  extent  to  which  those  who  have  taken  part  in 
them  have  overcome  their  long-standing  inhibitions  to 
the  rational,  objective  consideration  of  certain  intimate 
problems  related  to  the  sex  life  of  the  child. 

The  Federation  for  Child  Study  was  founded  over 
thirty  years  ago  by  a  small  group  of  mothers,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  FeHx  Adler,  as  "The  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Child  Nature."  Since  its  estabhshment  it  has 
evolved  an  effective  method  of  child  study  for  parents, 
teachers,  institutional  and  social  workers  —  that  is, 
for  those  who  are  vitally  and  practically  concerned 


jdi  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

with  children,  rather  than  for  students  with  a  purely 
academic  interest  in  the  subject.  This  book  is  an 
attempt  to  make  available  to  others  both  the  benefits 
of  this  method  and  some  of  the  concrete  results  of  the 
Federation's  efforts.  The  Outhnes  have  all  been 
worked  out  on  the  basis  of  actual  problems,  both  con- 
crete and  theoretical,  which  the  members  of  the  study 
groups  have  brought  out  in  the  course  of  their  study 
and  discussion.  They  are  snapshots,  so  to  say,  of 
constantly  changing  plans ;  they  are  therefore  not  to  be 
considered  as  in  any  sense  final.  They  do  represent, 
however,  as  experience  has  shown,  very  helpful  guides 
to  individual  and  group  study,  and  are  offered  as 
practical  working  plans  for  those  who  can  benefit  from 
a  better  understanding  of  the  various  phases  and  pro- 
cesses of  childhood.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  Federa- 
tion to  issue  from  time  to  time  supplementary  material 
designed  to  keep  workers  who  follow  this  plan  up  to 
date. 

The  references  represent  the  best  available  literature 
at  the  present  time.  New  knowledge  is  constantly 
being  produced  by  observers,  investigators  and  experi- 
menters, and  every  alert  person  will  want  to  keep 
informed  regarding  significant  discoveries.  Yet  most 
of  the  readings  suggested  will  be  found  to  be  of  rela- 
tively enduring  value.  There  is  variety  to  allow  for 
divergent  viewpoints  on  controversial  topics,  and  for 
different  degrees  of  technical  training  on  the  part  of  the 
students. 

In  assembling  this  material,  the  active  members  of 
the  Federation  have  done  the  bulk  of  the  work.  This 
has  consisted  of  digesting  and  abstracting  the  reports 


OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY  xiii 

and  minutes  of  hundreds  of  discussion  and  study 
meetings,  of  eliminating  duplications  and  irrelevancies, 
of  selecting  the  most  helpful  topics  and  modes  of 
approach,  and  of  indicating  the  most  helpful  readings. 
It  is  only  one  who  has  had  the  opportunity  to  look 
over  the  voluminous  records  of  the  Federation's 
activities  for  nearly  a  third  of  a  century  that  can 
reahze  both  the  radical  change  in  viewpoint  undergone 
by  these  students,  in  common  with  professional  in- 
vestigators and  educators,  and  the  great  amount  of 
selection  necessary  to  make  the  most  usable  part  of 
these  records  available  in  the  present  form. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  those  who 
have  assisted  in  this  work,  for  they  number  hterally 
himdreds;  but  all  who  have  taken  part  will  feel  amply 
rewarded  if  this  work  proves  to  be  of  practical  help  to 
their  fellows. 

October,  1922. 


ir% 


j^ 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction  by  Edward  L.  Thomdike vii 

Preface ix 

Suggestions  for  Study xvii 

A  Survey  of  the  Child's  Development 3 

The  Child  as  an  Organism 8 

*"  Health  Factors 13 

Thysical  Disturbances 16 

Infancy  and  Its  Discipline 19 

Obedience 23 

Punishment 26 

'  Imagination 30 

Truth  and  Falsehood 34 

Curiosity 38 

Fear 42 

Imitation  and  Suggestion 47 

Instinct  and  Habit 52 

Freedom  and  Discipline 57 

Constructing  and  Destroying 61 

>Toys  and  Tools 65 

Language  and  Speech  Development 71 

Foreign  Languages 75 

'Manners 78 

The  Use  of  Money 82 

Acquisitiveness 85 

Initiative  and  Spontaneity 92 

Ambitions  and  Ideals 97 

Rivab*y  and  Competition 104 

Clubs  and  Gangs 106 

Fighting Ill 

XV 


xvi  CONTENTS 

Page 

Play 116 

Travel  and  Adventure 121 

Pets  and  Plants 125 

The  Outdoor  Life 128 

Hobbies 132 

Children's  Books  and  Reading 135 

Arts  in  the  Life  of  the  Child 141 

Music 146 

Heredity 151 

Sex  Education 157 

Adolescence — Physical 163 

Adolescence — Emotional 167 

Adolescence — Intellectual 174 

Coeducation 180 

Choosing  an  Occupation 185 

Training  in  Social  Responsibility 190 

Religious  Training 196 

Civic  Interests 199 

The  Exceptional  Child— Deficient 203 

The  Exceptional  Child— Delinquent 209 

The  Exceptional  Child — Superior 213 

Mental  Hygiene 218 

Mental  Tests 222 

The  Festival  in  the  Child's  Education 226 

Cooperation  Between  School  and  Home 231 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    STUDY    AND    READING 

The  sections  that  make  up  this  book  give  a  general 
survey  of  the  more  common  problems  that  arise  from 
our  having  to  Uve  with  children.  The  mere  reading 
of  the  text,  however,  will  hardly  serve  as  a  substitute 
for  the  continuous  watchful  and  thoughtful  study  of 
children,  and  of  other  people's  thoughts  and  observa- 
tions upon  children.  There  is  offered  here  merely  a 
guide  for  study  and  reading. 

The  table  of  contents  will  give  a  sufficient  indication 
of  the  kind  and  the  range  of  topics  discussed.  The 
individual  reader  or  the  study  group  or  class  will  select 
a  topic  or  a  series  of  topics  in  accordance  with  actual 
needs  or  interests.  If  there  is  a  baby  in  the  house  you 
will  ignore  for  the  time  being  the  discussion  of  the  use 
of  money,  but  will  give  your  attention  to  the  problems 
of  infancy.  If  your  chief  concerns  are  with  the  play- 
mates and  mannerisms  of  a  particular  child,  you  will 
look  in  another  part  of  the  book  for  help.  It  is  desir- 
able, however,  that  the  study  be  systematic  and 
progressive  rather  than  random  and  spasmodic, 
although  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  the  topics  in  the 
order  given. 

After  a  topic  or  series  of  related  topics  has  been 
selected  for  study,  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  read 
first  the  text.  This  is  intended  to  give  a  suggestion 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  problem,  as  to  its  relation  to 

xvii 


xviii     SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  READING 

various  practical  matters  (sometimes  also  its  theoretical 
bearings),  and  as  to  the  directions  in  which  solutions 
have  been  tried  or  worked  out. 

The  "outline"  proper  should  then  be  read  carefully. 
The  student  should  first  read  the  main  headings 
(numbered  1,  2,  3,  etc.),  pausing  long  enough  to  make 
sure  of  the  general  significance  of  the  divisions.  Then 
the  subdivisions  should  be  studied  with  some  effort  to 
recall  concrete  experiences  related  to  the  characteristic 
behavior,  qualities,  feelings,  or  whatever  is  indicated. 

For  this  reading  of  the  outhne,  some  help  may  be 
had  by  again  referring  to  the  text. 

Where  the  topic  has  been  divided  for  study  and 
report  by  members  of  a  group,  reading  assignments  as 
well  as  sub-topic  assignments  may  be  made  in  accord- 
ance with  individual  interests  and  special  facilities. 
In  general,  the  more  ''popular"  readings  and  the 
"non-technical"  readings  will  be  found  to  touch  on  all 
the  phases  of  the  topics,  whereas  the  "technical" 
papers  usually  confine  themselves  to  some  special 
phase,  which  is  often  apparent  from  the  title. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  any  student  will  read 
most  of  the  papers  or  chapters  referred  to;  but  it  is 
desirable  that  where  a  group  is  studying  a  topic,  some 
one  or  more  members  be  assigned  to  read  and  report 
each  reference  that  is  accessible. 

Make  haste  slowly.  Only  those  who  have  had 
considerable  training  or  experience  can  profitably  start 
ofif  with  the  technical  literature.  For  beginners,  the 
best  plan  is  to  read  first  one  or  two  of  the  "popular" 
references;  then,  as  the  subject  and  vocabulary  become 
more  familiar,   to   advance   to   the   "non-technical"; 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  READING       xix 

and  eventually  to  attempt  the  ''technical"  readings, 
if  at  all,  only  after  fairly  complete  acquaintance  with 
various  aspects  of  the  special  problem  and  with  the 
terminology.  It  will  be  found  that  in  very  many  cases 
the  only  difference  between  a  ''popular"  and  a  "non- 
technical" paper  on  a  given  topic  is  that  the  former  is 
written  in  a  more  familiar  or  readable  style  and  avoids 
unusual  words.  In  the  same  way  a  "technical"  paper 
is  often  no  more  difficult  of  comprehension  than  a 
"non-technical,"  differing  only  from  the  latter  in  a 
severer  style,  but  having  no  more  depth  of  thought 
and  reveaUng  no  greater  insight. 

Another  important  matter  in  the  selecting  of 
references  is  the  fact  that  different  styles  of  writing 
make  different  appeals  to  different  individuals.  It  is, 
therefore,  worth  while  becoming  acquainted  with 
several  authors,  discovering  for  ourselves  which  are 
most  helpful.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
all  the  authors  tell  us  substantially  the  same  story  and 
differ  from  each  other  merely  in  style.  We  shall  find 
that  some  authors  are  more  helpful,  and  that  some  are 
more  easily  read.  The  point  is  that  we  are  to  make  no 
virtue  of  reading  what  is  particularly  difficult,  when  we 
can  get  the  same  practical  results  with  less  effort. 

In  reading  a  given  chapter  or  paper,  it  is  well  to 
have  the  outline  before  us,  either  in  the  book  or  copied 
with  generous  spacing  on  blank  paper  or  in  a  notebook. 
If  notes  are  made,  they  can  then  be  entered  in  an  order 
corresponding  to  the  plan  followed  by  other  members 
of  the  class.  This  is  especially  helpful  where  a  group 
is  engaged  in  a  study  or  where  the  reader  refers  to  two 


XX        SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND   READING 

or  more  authors,  since  it  makes  possible  the  comparison 
of  notes  gathered  from  various  sources. 

A  slow,  critical  reading  that  attempts  to  check 
generalizations  and  new  ideas  against  previous  ex- 
perience and  that  seeks  to  visualize  the  concrete  situa- 
tions described  or  the  practical  results  implied,  is  of 
the  utmost  value.  One  such  thorough  reading  with  the 
problems  and  plans  clearly  in  mind  is  worth  more  than 
several  repetitions  that  are  directed  merely  to  "learn- 
ing" what  the  book  says. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  analysis  of  the  problems  and 
the  study  of  the  references  should  go  the  noting  of  the 
related  traits  to  be  observed  in  the  children.  Observa- 
tion may  well  be  recorded  briefly  in  connection  with 
the  notes,  together  with  any  questions  that  suggest 
themselves. 

In  reporting  upon  a  topic,  we  must  be  careful  to 
separate  clearly  our  abstract  of  the  author's  facts  or 
thoughts  from  our  own  observations,  criticisms,  or 
views. 

A  rereading  of  the  text  after  the  study  of  the  outhne 
and  the  references  will  serve  as  a  summary  of  the  topic, 
and  the  important  points  will  be  seen  to  have  a  new 
meaning. 

From  time  to  time  the  reader  will  come  across  news- 
paper items,  magazine  articles,  or  passages  in  novels  or 
in  other  books  that  are  related  to  the  study  of  child- 
hood. It  is  worth  while  in  such  cases  to  make  a  brief 
note  and  reference  to  the  item  in  question  on  the 
appropriate  page  in  the  Manual. 


OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


1.     A  SURVEY  OF  THE  CHILD'S 
DEVELOPMENT 

In  considering  the  successive  stages  of  the  develop- 
ing child,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  no  two  children 
are  exactly  alike,  and  that  the  rates  of  development 
and  the  degrees  of  development  of  the  several  charac- 
ters will  vary.  The  stages  listed  are  not  sharply  sep- 
arated from  one  another.  The  traits  mentioned  do  not 
show  themselves  suddenly,  but  each  in  its  turn  grad- 
ually becomes  distinguishable  from  the  whole  mass  of 
actions  and  feelings.  Our  control  Ues  in  the  fact  that 
we  can  to  a  large  extent  determine  the  kinds  of  stim- 
ulations which  the  child  receives.  Our  study  should 
discover  how  the  child  responds  to  various  kinds  of 
treatment,  to  various  conditions — to  the  ''stimuli"  in 
short  — and  to  find  and  apply  the  stimuli  which  pro- 
duce the  responses  leading  to  desirable  types  of  conduct. 

The  survey  of  characteristics  that  become  promi- 
nent in  the  successive  stages  must  be  considered  only 
as  a  tentative  approximation.  It  is  neither  a  record 
of  what  any  particular  child  has  done,  nor  a  calendar 
of  what  any  particular  child  "ought"  to  do.  It  is 
helpful  as  an  "average,"  in  proportion  to  the  insight 
we  exercise  in  discovering  the  meaning  of  the  conduct 
of  the  particular  child  in  whom  we  are  interested,  and 
in  proportion  to  the  judgment  we  use  in  fitting  the 
surroundings,  including  ourselves,  to  the  child's  present 
needs. 


4  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

This  survey  shows  that  the  child  develops  pro- 
gressively from  a  comparatively  passive  organism 
dependent  upon  external  stimulations  and  suggestions 
to  a  relatively  self-directing  personality.  So  obedience 
to  suggestion  or  guidance  and  even  command  is  the 
condition  for  establishing  habits  that  are  related  to 
fundamental  physical  and  social  needs.  Gradually 
this  dependence  must  be  replaced  by  a  body  of  prin- 
ciples and  ideals  as  well  as  by  habit  of  inquiry  and 
reflection,  so  that  eventually  the  child  becomes  both 
independent  and  responsible. 

At  every  stage  may  be  observed  the  gradual  differ- 
entiation of  new  capacities,  new  interests,  and  new 
attitudes  from  an  earher,  relatively  shapeless  mass  of 
activities  and  feehngs.  At  the  same  time  there  is  an 
increasing  integration  of  the  various  manifestations  of 
inner  impulses  in  subordination  to  dominating  purpose. 
These  facts  of  development  are  illustrated  by  the 
child's  games,  by  his  attitude  toward  others,  by  his 
choice  of  companions,  by  his  hobbies.  The  differentia- 
tions are  most  conspicuous  during  the  period  of  child- 
hood, say  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth  year;  the 
integration  becomes  conspicuous  during  adolescence. 


OUTLINE 

1.      INFANCY FIRST    11    TO    15    MONTHS 

a.  Need  for  individual  care 

b.  Movements,  reflex  and  random 

e.  Experience  of  environment,  reaction,  and   self — un- 
differentiated 


A  SURVEY  OF  THE  CHILD'S  DEVELOPMENT       5 

2.  WALKING-TALKING    PERIOD,    2    TO   3    YEARS 

a.  Imitation  and  discovery  of  individuals 

b.  Stimuli  from  language,  expression,  gesture,  etc. 

c.  Separation  of  sensations  from  objects 

d.  Separation  of  emotions  from  stimuli  and  action 

e.  Appearance  of  play  as  a  detached  activity 

f.  Imaginations 

3.  PRE-SCHOOL   AGE,    4    TO    6   YEARS 

a.  Self-consciousness 

b.  Self-assertiveness 

c.  Curiosity 

d.  Discovery  of  imagined  and  real 

e.  Appropriation 

f .  Control  of  larger  movements 

g.  Activity 

h.  Play  about  objects,  toys,  symbols 

4.  THE   LATENT   PERIOD,    6   TO    12   YEARS 

a.  Rivalry 

b.  Pugnacity 

c.  Ambition 

d.  Socialization  and  loyalties 

e.  Control  of  smaller  movements 

f.  Constructiveness 

g.  Collecting 

h.  Rise  and  decline  of  imitativeness  (related  to  compe- 
tition) 

i.  Emergence  of  team  games 

j.  Adventure  (prowess) 
k.  Ready  assimilation,  drill 

5.  THE   ADOLESCENT   AGE,    12    TO    16   YEARS 

a.  Development  of  puberty 

b.  Sex  consciousness 

c.  New  interest 

d.  New  energies 

e.  New  ideals 

f .  Self-discovery  and  self-determination 


6  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

6.      MATURING    PERIOD,    18   TO    24   YEARS 

a.  Assimilation  of  thought  and  activities  of  the  race 

b.  Assumption  of  place  in  community,  and  of  responsi- 

bility 

c.  Participation  in  the  shaping  of  social  destiny 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Drummond,  M.  —  Five  Years  Old  or  Thereahovis 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  67-70 

Non-Technical 
-.   KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making: 
Chap.  Ill,  "General  Description"; 
Chap.  IX,  "General  Characteristics" 

\  NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  The  Psychology  of  Childhood: 
Chap.  XIV,  "  Physical  Development  of  the  Child" ; 
Chap.  XV,  "A  Cross  Section  of  Child  Life  at  Five 
and  at  Eleven" 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child: 

Chap.  II,  "Growth  of  the  Body"; 

Chap.   XIV,    "Impulsive,   Reflex,  and   Instinctive 

Movements"; 
Chap.  XX,  "Play" 

Technical 
King,  Irving  —  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development: 

Chap.  XIV,  Concluding  Remarks  on  "Interests" 

.^  KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Studies  in  Development  and  Learning: 
Archives  of  Psychology,  II,  4-101,  March,  1909: 
Development  of  auditory  and  visual  memory,  4-8; 
Development  in  quickness  of  perception  and  move- 
ment, 9-14;  Artistic  sense,  15-24;  Ways  of  learning 


A  SURVEY  OF  THE  CHILD'S  DEVELOPMENT       7 

visual  forms,  54-59;  How  children  study,  65-66; 
Experimental  study  of  musical  learning,  68-71; 
Incidental  memory,  79-85;  Children's  ideas  of  right 
and  wrong,  79-89 

Rasmussen,  Vilhelm  —  Child  Psychology: 

Chap.  I,  "Development  in  the  First  Four  Years" 


2.     THE  CHILD  AS  AN  ORGANISM 

Most  of  us  have  become  accustomed  to  think  of  the 
child,  at  least  after  he  is  able  to  talk,  as  a  cunning 
intelligence  bent  upon  mischief  or  upon  the  pursuit  of 
inscrutable  purposes  often  resulting  in  mischief.  In 
fact,  however,  the  child  is  for  the  most  part  quite 
unconscious  of  any  purposes  until  he  gets  well  along  in 
years,  and  most  of  what  he  does  might  better  be  inter- 
preted as  the  inevitable  result  of  forces  acting  upon 
him  and  through  him  than  as  the  calculated  result  of 
his  planning  or  desire. 

.Like  an  intelligent  animal  or  machine,  the  child 
responds  to  the  impressions  he  receives  in  a  manner 
determined  by  his  structure  and  constitution.  He  is 
not,  to  be  sure,  a  purely  automatic  machine;  but  his 
intelligence  appears  not  in  doing  from  the  first  what  is 
wise  or  well  calculated,  but  in  his  capacity  to  learn 
enough  of  himself  and  of  his  world  to  enable  him 
eventually  to  act  wisely  or  effectively  in  new  situations, 
to  solve  problems,  to  adopt  new  purposes.  This  means 
that  we  must  learn  to  think  of  the  child  and  to  treat 
him,  at  least  at  first,  as  a  mechanism,  and  to  try  to 
understand  his  workings. 

Again  we  must  recognize  that  this  mechanism 
differs  from  our  artificial  machines  in  the  striking  unity 
of  its  action  and  in  the  intimate  interdependence  of 
its  parts.  Anything  happening  to  the  child  or  going  on 
inside  him  may  affect  all  his  processes:  a  glare  of 

8 


THE  CHILD  AS  AN  ORGANISM  9 

light  may  affect  his  digestion,  his  digestion  may  affect 
his  mood,  his  mood  may  affect  his  breathing  or  the 
workings  of  his  heart ;  and  this  unity  must  be  observed 
when  we  are  deaUng  with  his  higher  intellectual  and 
emotional  development  as  well  as  when  we  are  con- 
cerned merely  with  his  physical  health. 

The  child  changes  from  day  to  day,  not  merely  in 
size,  but  in  the  relative  strength  and  activity  of  the 
various  organs,  in  his  interests,  and  in  his  capacities. 
We  must  recognize  this  fact  of  progressive  change  and 
not  limit  his  opportunities  or  our  outlook  for  the  future 
because  at  a  given  moment  everything  seems  to  go  well; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  need  we  despair  because  for  the 
time  being  there  are  imperfect  adjustments  or  unhappy 
incidents.  Moreover,  we  must  recognize  that  the 
child's  progressive  development  results  in  part  from 
inner  forces,  and  in  part  from  the  very  experiences 
through  which  he  passes  day  by  day.  Hence,  the 
importance  not  alone  of  ''training"  as  commonly 
understood,  which  consists  of  supplying  for  the  child 
controlled  experiences,  but  of  wise  handling  of  experi- 
ences that  constantly  arise  of  themselves. 

Finally,  we  must  recognize  that,  hke  other  beings, 
the  child  is  a  unique  individual.  This  does  not  mean 
that  we  must  expect  of  each  child  the  manifestations  of 
genius  or  some  striking  pecuharity.  It  means  that  each 
child  departs  in  greater  or  less  degree  from  the  mean  or 
''average"  in  regard  to  every  characteristic.  We  must 
avoid,  therefore,  the  temptation  to  standardize  our 
expectations  and  our  demands.  We  must  study  rather 
to  discover  the  more-or-less  that  is  distinctive,  to 
accept    certain    shortcomings    as    quite    normal,    to 


10  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

discover  compensations  worth  cultivating,  to  adjust  our 
demands  to  the  capacities  of  the  child,  and  to  apply  our 
stimuli  and  encouragement  where  they  will  do  the  most 
good. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE   PHYSICAL    BASIS 

a.  Interdependence  of  organs  and  functions 

b.  Responsiveness  to  environment 

c.  Modifications  resulting  from  responses 

2.  GROWTH   AND    DEVELOPMENT 

a.  Inherent  tendency  to  change 

b.  Dependence  upon  external  factors  —  physical,  mental 
e.  Differences  between  child  and  adult 

3.  INDIVIDUAL   VARIATION 

a.  No  two  alike 

b.  Essential  race  characters 

c.  Normal  range  and  family  variations 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

GuLiCK,  L.  H.  —  Exercise  and  Rest: 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Department  of  Child  Hy- 
giene, Pub.  No.  76 

GuYER,  Michael  F.  —  Being  Well  Born: 

Through  Chap.  VIII,  "Mental  and  Nervous  De- 
fects" 

Lay,  Wilfrid  —  The  Child's  Unconscious  Mind: 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Aim  of  Education"; 
Chap.  IX,  "Conclusion  —  Medical  Origin" 

Rose,  M.  S.  —  Feeding  the  Family: 

(especially  chapters  on  Child  Feeding) 


THE   CHILD   AS  AN   ORGANISM  11 

MuREiAY  AND  Smitb  —  Child  Under  Eight 
Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child 
Tyler,  John  Mason  —  Growth  and  Education 

Non-Technical 
Conklin,  E.  G.  —  Heredity  and  Environment: 

Chap.  I,  "Facts  and  Factors  of  Development" 

Jennings,  Watson,  Meyer,  and  Thomas  —  Suggestions  of 
Modern  Science  Concerning  Education: 
"Biology  of  Children  in  Relation  to  Education" 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in   the  Making:  Pts. 
I  and  II 

Mackenzie,  R.  T.  —  Exercise  in  EducaUon  and  Medicine: 
Chaps.  I-VI 

NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood: 

Through  Chap.  XIV,  "Physical  Development  of  the 
Child" 

Sandiford,   Peter  —  Mental  and  Physcial  Life  of  School 
Children:  Sees.  I-V 

Terman,  L.  M.  —  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child: 

Chap.  II,  "The  Physical  Basis  of  Education"; 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Factors  Influencing  Growth" 

Woodrow,  H.  —  Brightness  and  Dullness  in  Children: 
Chap.  IV,  "Brains" 

Technical 
Benedict  and  Talbot  —  Metabolism  and  Growth  from  Birth 
to  Puberty:  1-21.  32-36,  44-52.  69-72,   100,  128, 
176,  186 

Dennett,   Roger  H.  —  Exercise  and  Diet  in   Relation  to 
Growth: 
New  York  Medical  Journal,  XCVII,  756-759,  1913 


12  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

HooBLER,  Raymond  —  Diseases  Influencing  Growth: 

New  York  Medical  Journal,  XCVII,  769-771,  1913 

Mendel,  Lafayette  B.  —  Nutrition  and  Growth 
Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Educational  Psychology;  Briefer  Course: 
Pt.  I,  "The  Original  Nature  of  Man"; 
Pt.  II,  "The  Psychology  of  Learning";  Chap.  X, 
"The  Laws  of  Learning  in  Animals",  Chap.  XI, 
"Associative  Learning  in  Man"; 
Pt.  Ill,  "Individual  Differences  and  Their  Causes" 

Vincent,  Swale  —  Glands  of  Internal  Secretion 


3.     HEALTH  FACTORS 

In  the  day-by-day  treatment  of  the  child  with  a 
view  both  to  present  comfort  and  to  future  character 
and  happiness,  we  cannot  separate  the  mind  from  the 
body.  The  child  is  to  be  considered  as  a  unity,  and 
the  body  should  receive  its  due  share  of  consideration. 
While  it  is  true  that  many  physical  ills  have  their  source 
in  mental  or  emotional  derangements,  it  is  equally  true 
that  many  mental  and  emotional  disturbances  are 
caused  by  physical  derangements.  The  body  is  basic 
in  the  sense  that  upon  its  health  depends  the  energy 
and  the  balance  of  the  mind.  It  is  also  in  many  ways 
more  readily  and  more  directly  controlled. 

Since  during  infancy  there  cannot  be  any  question 
of  worry  or  hatred  the  primary  consideration  is  physical 
health.  Attention  must  accordingly  be  given  from  the 
start  to  the  conditions  that  insure  physical  comfort. 
These  conditions  include  such  factors  as  food,  ventila- 
tion, temperature,  adequate  and  regular  ehmination 
from  the  bowels  and  bladder,  abundant  sleep,  and 
freedom  from  irritation,  pain  or  annoyance. 

OUTLINE 

1.      INTERDEPENDENCE  OF  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  OTHER  PARTS 
OF   THE    BODY 

a.  The  sense  organs  and  the  nervous  system 

b.  The  muscles  and  the  nervous  system 

c.  The  glands  and  the  nervous  system 

d.  The  sympathetic  nervous  system 

e.  Automatic  adjustments 

13 


14  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

2.  FACTORS  IN  PHYSICAL  HEALTH 

a.  Nutrition 

b.  Oxygenation 

c.  Elimination 

d.  Circulation 

e.  Exercise 

f.  Recreation 

g.  Rest  and  sleep 
h.  Cleanliness 

3.  DISTURBING    FACTORS   TO   BE   AVOIDED 

a.  Physical  irritation 

b.  Pain 

c.  Annoyance,  fright,  nagging,  etc. 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
BuRBANK,  L.  —  The  Training  of  the  Human  Plant 
DiTMAN,  N.  E.  —  Home  Hygiene  and  Prevention  of  Disease 

KiNNE  AND  CooLEY  —  Clothing  and  Health:   240-248 
Food  and  Health 

Non-Technical 
Cameron,  H.  C.  —  The  Nervous  Child 
Dennett,  R.  H.  —  The  Healthy  Baby 

Fisher,  L.  —  Health  Care  of  the  Baby 

Health  Care  of  the  Growing  Child:  Pts.  I  and  II 

Holt,  L.  E.  —  The  Care  and  Feeding  of  Children 

Oppenheim,  N.  —  The  Development  of  the  Child:  Chap.  II-IV, 
IX-XI 

Tweddell,  F.  —  How  to  Take  Care  of  the  Baby 

Technical 
Ramsey,  W.  R.  —  Care  and  Feeding  of  Infants  and  Children 
Terman,  L.  M.  —  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child 


HEALTH  FACTORS  15 

Pamphlets 
Reports  on  "Minimum  Standards  for  Children,"  issued  by 
the  U.  S.  Children's  Bureau,  Department  of  Labor,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C: 

Series  No.  1,  Pub.  No.  59  —  Malnutrition; 
Series  No.  4,  Pub.  No.  35  —  Milk; 
Series  No.  2,  Pub.  No.    8  —  Infant  Care; 
Series  No.  5,  Pub.  No.  69  —  Child  Welfare  Special; 
Series  No,  4,  Pub.  No.  67  —  Children's     Year,     A 
Brief  Summary 


4.    PHYSICAL  DISTURBANCES 

The  mental  processes  and  the  emotional  states  or 
moods  of  the  child  are  easily  modified  by  comparatively 
slight  departures  from  the  normal  or  routine  conditions; 
and  they  in  turn  react  vigorously  upon  the  digestion, 
the  circulation,  the  breathing,  and  the  nerves. 

The  petty  frustration  that  stirs  the  child's  anger, 
resentment,  or  shame,  the  sudden  trifle  that  startles 
him,  may  initiate  a  long  chain  of  serious  interferences 
with  the  normal  vegetative  processes.  It  is  also  true 
that  extreme  pleasurable  excitations  produce  unfavor- 
able reactions,  especially  through  their  effects  upon  the 
digestive  system. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  increased  irritabihty  of  the 
fatigued  child,  the  despondency  or  sulkiness  associated 
with  constipation,  and  the  sluggishness  of  the  poorly 
oxygenated  organism,  illustrate  the  dependence  of 
essential  elements  in  behavior  upon  physical  conditions. 
Fatigue,  not  properly  remedied,  illustrates  the  tendency 
of  many  sets  of  reactions  to  develop  into  a  chronic 
state,  or  a  vicious  circle.  Eyestrain,  defective  hearing, 
obstructed  breathing,  carious  teeth,  bUnd  abscesses  or 
ulcers,  flat  feet,  and  other  conditions  of  stress  are 
common  sources  of  difficulty  in  the  child's  development. 


16 


PHYSICAL  DISTURBANCES  17 

OUTLINE 

1.  EXTERNAL  SOURCES  OF  DISTURBANCE  AND   IRRITATION 

a.  Pain 

b.  Chafing  and  pressure  from  clothes 

c.  Extremes  of  temperature  and  humidity 

d.  Strained  or  awkward  positions 

e.  Noises 

f.  Glare 

2.  ORGANIC    SOURCES    OF   IRRITATION 

a.  Eye  defects 

b.  Defects  in  hearing 

c.  Obstructed  breathing;  adenoids 

d.  Defective  teeth 

e.  Abscesses  and  ulcers;  infected  tonsils 

f.  Flat  feet 

g.  Defects  of  heart  and  other  organs 

3.  FUNCTIONAL   SOURCES    OF   IRRITATION 

a.  Hunger  or  thirst 

b.  Need  for  voiding  bladder  or  bowels 

c.  Constipation 

d.  Fatigue 

4.  REACTION  BETWEEN  THE  EMOTIONS  AND  ORGANIC  FUNC- 

TIONS 

a.  The  emotions  and  internal  secretions 

b.  The  emotions  and  the  muscles 

(1)  Involuntary 

(2)  Voluntary 

5.  SECONDARY    CAUSES    OF   DISTURBANCH 

a.  Anger 

b.  Feeling  of  slight  or  inferiority 

c.  Worry  or  anxiety 

d.  Envy  and  jealousy 

e.  Various  denials  and  repressions 


18  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Bruce,  H.  A.  —  Handicaps  of  Childhood:  87-95 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  20-44 

White,  W.  A.  —  The  Mental  Hygiene  of  Childhood: 

Chap.  VII,  "Problems:  Education  —  Punishment" 

Non-Technical 
Jennings,  Watson,  Meyer,  and  Thomas  —  Suggestions  of 
Modern  Science  Concerning  Education:  "Biology  of 
Children  in  Relation  to  Education"  (H.  S.  Jen- 
nings), 3-50 

Suggestions  of  Modern  Science  Concerning  Eduxxition: 
"Mental  and  Moral  Health  in  a  Constructive 
School  Program"  and  "Modern  Conceptions  of 
Mental  Diseases"  (Adolf  Meyer),  103-153,  201-211 

Technical 
Cannon,  W.  B.  —  Bodily  Changes  in  Pain,  Hunger,  Fear, 
and  Rage:  1-21,  184-214,  232-266 

Chile,  G.  W.  —  Man,  an  Adaptive  Organism: 

Chap.  VII,  "Diseases  of  the  Kinetic  System"; 
Chap.  XIII,  "Pain,  Laughter,  and  Weeping"; 
Chap.  XIV,  "Transformationof  Energy  and  Acido- 
sis" 

Jennings,  Watson,  Meyer,  and  Thomas  —  Suggestions  of 
Modern  Science  Concerning  Education:    "Primary 
Group  Norms  in  Modern  Education"  (William 
J.  Thomas),  1-50 

Wallin,  J.  E.  W.  —  Mental  Health  of  the  School  Child:  1-21, 
300-314,  315-336 


5.    INFANCY  AND  ITS  DISCIPLINE 

During  the  first  twelve  to  fifteen  months,  the  life 
of  the  infant  is  characterized  by  the  gradual  separation 
from  a  shapeless  bundle  of  wriggles  and  squeals,  of 
more  or  less  definite  movements,  more  or  less  articulate 
sounds,  and  various  expressions  of  mood  and  feehng. 
The  outward  movements  are  at  first  apparently 
random,  unrelated  to  what  is  happening  in  the 
surroundings,  or  reflex,  related  only  as  a  direct  and 
immediate  response  to  stimulation.  In  time  we  can 
see  that  a  sound,  instead  of  merely  producing  spas- 
modic or  "startled"  movements,  will  produce  one 
effect  if  it  is  mother's  footstep  and  a  different  one 
if  it  is  father's  voice.  A  change  in  illumination,  instead 
of  producing  a  stupid  bhnking,  will  produce  one  effect 
if  it  is  brought  about  by  the  sight  of  the  milk  bottle 
and  a  different  effect  if  it  is  accompanied  by  the  sight 
of  an  unfriendly  face.  We  say  that  the  child  begins  to 
''recognize,"  which  means  that  the  elements  of  the 
environment,  instead  of  being  merely  stimuli  to  general 
muscular  contractions,  gradually  come  to  have  the 
distinct  effects  of  objects  and  persons,  of  pleasure  or 
pain. 

The  emergence  of  a  different  attitude  toward,  and  a 
different  response  to,  the  various  things  and  persons 
of  the  environment  depends  upon  the  child's  receiving 
different  kinds  or  degrees  of  satisfaction  or  annoyance 
from  these  various  elements  as  they  encroach  upon 

19 


20  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

him  through  his  senses.  It  is  therefore  important  that 
during  this  early  period  there  should  be  first  of  all 
undisturbed  sleep,  and  secondly  regular  routine  of 
feeding.  The  first  is  necessary  for  avoiding  ii-ritations, 
excitements,  overstimulation ;  the  second,  for  estabhsh- 
ing  a  useful  rhythm  in  the  basic  physiological  proc- 
esses of  nutrition  and  elimination. 

It  is  possible  for  the  child  during  this  period  to 
vegetate  most  of  the  time  and  to  learn  many  of  the 
simple  proprieties  of  his  station  in  life.  He  will  insist 
upon  attention  if  he  has  learned  that  he  can  get  it  by 
insisting;  or  he  will  be  content  to  remain  ignored  for  a 
long  period  if  he  has  learned  that  insistence  does  not 
help.  He  will  insist  upon  getting  everything  he  sees, 
or  he  will  be  content  to  play  with  the  things  merely  in 
reach.  He  will  imitate  facial  expressions  and  the  feel- 
ings that  go  with  them;  and  he  will  imitate  gestures 
and  tones  of  voice. 

His  capacity  to  modify  his  simple  reflexes  by  accept- 
ing substitutes  and  symbols  for  the  direct  satisfaction 
of  his  simple  desires,  and  his  tendency  to  reflect  the 
actions  and  noises  he  observes,  furnish  the  foundation 
for  his  discipHne.  The  simple  routine  of  attending  to 
his  needs,  of  avoiding  disturbances,  and  of  a  happy 
atmosphere,  accompanied  by  consistency  in  all  deahngs, 
are  the  essential  requirements. 

OUTLINE 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   THE   PERIOD 

a.  Movements 

(1)  Random 

(2)  Reflex 

(3)  Imitative 


INFANCY  AND  ITS  DISCIPLINE  21 

b.  Sensorial  Development 

(1)  Touch  and  taste 

(2)  Sight 

(3)  Sound 

c.  Emotions 

(1)  Anger  when  frustrated 

(2)  Fear  when  startled 

(3)  Pleasure 

(4)  Disgust  or  aversion;  pain 

(5)  Hunger 

2.  MODIFICATION   OF   BEHAVIOR 

a.  EstabHshment  of  associations  or  conditioned  reflexes 

b.  Transition  of  sensations  from  stimuli  to  suggestions 

or  symbols 

c.  Establishment  of  routine  by  rhythm  or  repetition 

d.  Imitation  of  movements,  sounds,  expression 

3.  PROGRESS    OF   THE   PERIOD 

a.  Differentiation  of  articulate  speech  from  cooing  and 

babbhng 

b.  Manipulation  of  objects 

c.  Recognition  of  people  and  things 

d.  Distinction  between  permitted  and  forbidden  actions 

4.  SPECIAL   ATTAINMENTS 

a.  Sleeping  when  placed  in  certain  position  or  place 

b.  Waiting  for  food 

c.  Regular  bowel  movements 

d.  Following  suggestions,  warnings,  etc. 

5.  MANIFESTATIONS    OF  SEX 

a.  Sucking  thumb 

b.  Cuddling 

c.  Masturbation 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Cameron,  H.  C.  —  The  Nervous  Child 


22  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Read,  Mary  L.  —  Mothercraft  Manual: 
Chap.  VII,  "Care  of  the  Baby"; 
Chap.  X,  "Education  of  the  Little  Child"; 
Chap.  XII,  "A  Curriculum  for  Babyhood" 

Non-Technical 
King,  Irving  —  Psychology  of  Child  Development: 

Chap.  II,  "Primary  Problems  Relating  to  the 
Child's  Earliest  Experience" 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  V,  "The  Early  Development  of  the  Human 
Infant"; 

Chap.  VI,  "Development  of  Individualistic  In- 
stincts"; 

Chap.  VIII,  "Development  of  Instincts  —  Imita- 
tion"; 

Chap.  IX,  "Development  of  Adaptive  Instincts  — 
Play" 

Waddle,  Charles  W.  —  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology: 
95-100,  115,  138,  156-159,  160,  162,  173-179,  180, 
257,  261-262,  283-284,  289,  292 

Watson,  John  B.  —  The  Psychology  of  Infancy: 
Scientific  Monthly,  December,  1921 

Technical 

Holt,  E.  B.  —  The  Freudian  Wish: 

Chap.  Ill,  "The  Wish  in  Ethics" 

Watson,  John  B.  —  Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a 
Behaviorist: 

Chap.  VI,  "Hereditary  Modes  of  Response:  Emo- 
tions," especially  pages  198-207,  212-214; 

Chap.  VII,  "Hereditary  Modes  of  Response:  In- 
stinct," especially  pages  236-249; 

Chap.  XI,  "Personality  and  Its  Disturbance" 


6.    OBEDIENCE 

For  the  health  and  safety  of  the  infant  and  the 
inexperienced  child,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  he  be 
directed  in  his  actions.  Obedience  is  the  means  by 
which  the  older,  more  experienced  person  guides  the 
child  and  protects  him  against  the  dangers  of  impulsive 
action. 

Yet  obedience  is  not  to  be  cultivated  as  being  in 
itself  an  end  of  our  training.  It  must  be  considered  an 
instrument  through  which  the  child  is  led  to  discover 
standards  of  conduct  outside  of  his  own  impulses  and 
untrained  desires.  He  is  to  pass  from  bUnd  impulse 
and  whims  to  the  guidance  of  personal  authority;  and 
he  is  to  pass  further  from  obedience  to  personal  author- 
ity and  external  masters  to  self-control  and  obedience 
to  higher  laws,  which  is  true  freedom.  While  each  of 
these  modes  is  more  dominant  in  its  own  particular 
period,  we  must  not  assume  that  each  is  to  be  cultivated 
exclusively,  e.  g.,  that  early  childhood  is  to  be  given 
entirely  to  obedience  to  personal  authority.  Rather 
should  all  possible  opportunity  be  given  to  cultivate 
the  higher  forms  at  the  same  time  that  the  lower 
forms  are  used. 

Disobedience  and  stubbornness  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  indications  of  a  strong  will.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  are  generally  due  to  the  child's  inability 
to  grasp  and  master  himself.  In  certain  cases  they 
may  be  the  natural  result  in  the  child  of  wrong  handling 

23 


24  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

in  his  earlier  years.  Ready  obedience,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  in  many  cases  indicate  merely  lack  of  purpose 
and  the  acceptance  of  suggestions  as  the  easiest  line  to 
follow. 

OUTLINE 
L      THE  NECESSITY   OF   OBEDIENCE 

a.  Guidance  in  infancy 

b.  Responsibility  for  decision  in  childhood 

(1)  For  health 

(2)  For  safety 

(3)  For  conduct  generally 

c.  Formation  of  important  habits 

2.  DANGERS   OF   OBEDIENCE 

a.  Submission  to  the  will  of  others 

b.  Weakening  of  responsibility,  discretion,  and  initiative 

c.  Conflict  between  action  and  purpose 

3.  OBTAINING  THE   CHILD's   COOPERATION 

a.  Secure  confidence 

b.  Develop  mutual  understanding  and  community  of 

aims 

c.  Avoid  rude  intrusion   upon   the  child's  plans  and 

purposes 

d.  Avoid  unnecessary,  arbitrary,  or  thoughtless  com- 

mands 

4.  SUBLIMATION   OF   OBEDIENCE 

a.  Infant  yields  to  suggestion 

b.  Child  follows  guidance 

c.  Later  accepts  personal  authority 

d.  Eventually  acts  according  to  conscience,  principles, 

or  law 


OBEDIENCE  25 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  Mothers  and  Children:  97-162 

Oilman,  Charlotte  Po  —  Concerning  Children: 

Chap.  II,  "Effect  of  Minding  on  the  Mind"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Two  and  Two  Together" 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  VI,  "The  First  Great  Law" 

Non-Technical 

Griggs,  E.  H.  —  Moral  Education:  145-195 

Kerr,  Le  Grand  —  Care  and  Training  of  Children:   146-161 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making:  203-215 

SissoN,  E.  O,  —  Essentials  of  Character:   63-74 

Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood: 
Chap.  VIII,  "Under  Law" 

Technical 

Smith,  Theodate  L.  —  Obstinacy  and  Obedience: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XII,  27-54,  1905 


7.    PUNISHMENT 

Punishment  originates  in  a  primitive  impulse  akin 
to  vindictiveness.  It  is  nevertheless  seriously  justified 
by  many,  and  inflicted  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
the  repetition  of  wrongdoing.  This  is  on  the  assump- 
tion (to  a  large  degree  gratuitous)  that  punishment  acts 
as  a  deterrent  or  inhibiter.  Something  may  also  be 
said  for  the  moral  effect  of  penance  —  the  curative 
value  of  an  experience  that  compels  reflection,  contri- 
tion, and  new  resolutions. 

We  seek  to  prevent  wrongdoing  by  a  variety  of 
means;  but  when  it  does  occur,  as  it  will,  we  should 
direct  our  attention  to  the  child's  weaknesses  and 
temptations,  and  seek  to  overcome  these,  rather  than 
to  deal  with  the  offense  or  with  the  resulting  damage  as 
the  important  thing. 

The  need  for  punishment  arises  usually  in  our 
failure  to  imderstand  the  child's  impulses  and  reasoning. 
With  our  superior  strength  we  should  impose  penalties 
only  for  the  benefit  of  the  child  and  its  further  growth, 
not  for  our  own  comfort  or  relief. 

Whatever  form  of  punishment  we  use,  we  should 
avoid  producing  antagonisms,  estrangements,  fears,  or 
other  results  that  are  in  any  way  worse  than  the 
offense  we  are  trying  to  eradicate.  Account  should  be 
taken  of  the  child's  mental  state  at  the  time  the  offense 
was  committed,  of  the  mental  and  moral  development 
he  has  attained,  of  his  attitude  and  his  individual 
peculiarities. 

26 


PUNISHMENT  27 

OUTLINE 

1.  ORIGIN   AND    DEVELOPMENT   OF    PUNISHMENT 

a.  Instinctive  striking  back 

b.  Retaliation  as  "Justice" 

c.  Penalty  as  deterrent 

d.  Remedial  treatment  for  moral  improvement  of  of- 

fender 

2.  EFFECTS    OF   PUNISHMENT 

a.  Children's  idea  of  punishment 
.  b.  Inhibitory  and  deterrent 

c.  Temptations  to  evasion  and  dishonesty 

d.  Antagonisms  and  fe&rs 

e.  Development  of  hardness  and  cruelty 

f.  Repression 

g.  A  negative  agent  at  best 

3.  FORMS    OF   PUNISHMENT 

a.  "Natural"  punishment 

(1)  Advantages 

(2)  Fallacies 

b.  Corporal  punishment 

c.  Privations 

(1)  Of  essentials 

(2)  Of  indulgences 

d.  Imposition  of  tasks  and  hardships 

e.  Disapprobations 

4.  POSITIVE    PRINCIPLES 

a.  Make  clear  connection  between  offense  and  punish- 

ment 

b.  Separate  offense  and  offender 

(1)  Discover  motives 

(2)  Avoid  "bad  names" 

c.  Adapt  progressively  to  child's  level  of  intelligence  and 

moral  development 

d.  Use  child's  concurrence  and  cooperation 

5.  NEGATIVE    PRINCIPLES 

a.  Avoid  humiUation 

b.  Avoid  anger  when  manifesting  indignation 

c.  Avoid  excessive  or  cruel  penalties 


28  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Abbott,  Ernest  H.  —  On  the  Training  of  Parents: 
Chap.  Ill,  "The  Rule  of  Wit" 

Adler,  Felix  —  The  Punishment  of  Children 

Allen,  A.  W.  —  Home,  School,  and  Vacation:  138-141 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  Mothers  and  Children:  97-168 

Oilman,  Charlotte  P.  —  Concerning  Children : 

Chap.  II,  "The  Effect  of  Minding  on  the  Mind": 
Chap.  Ill,  "Two  and  Two  Together" 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  II,  "The  Problem  of  Punishment" 
Sons  and  Daughters:  20-26,  245-200 

Montessori,  Maria  —  The  Montessori  Method: 
Chap.  V,  "Discipline" 

Non-Technical 

Griggs,  E.  H.  —  Moral  Education: 

Chap.  XV,  "The  Nature  and  Function  of  Correc- 
tive Discipline  " ; 

Chap.  XVI,  "Administration  of  Corrective  Disci- 
pline" 

Kerr,  Le  Grand  —  Care  and  Training  of  Children:    162 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  a.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  XI,   "Development  of   Instincts  —  Regula- 
tive" 
The  Individual  in  the  Making:   205-215 

Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood: 

Chap.  VIII,  "The  Struggle  with  Law;  On  the  Side 
of  the  Law;  The  Wise  Law-Giver" 


PUNISHMENT  29 

Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education:  First  Series,  26-28; 
Second  Series,  203-217,  218-233 
Punishment  as  Seen  hy  Children: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  III,  235-245,  1894 

PrisTER,  Oscar  —  The  Psychoanalytic  Method:  558-561 

Sears,  C.  H.  —  Home  and  School  Punishments: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  159-187,  1899 

Smith,  Theodate,  L.  —  Obstinacy  and  Obedience: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XII,  27-54,  1905 

Spencer,  Herbert  —  Education: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Moral  Education" 


8.     IMAGINATION 

Imagination  is  the  capacity  of  seeing  things  with  the 
eyes  shut  tight.  It  may  mean  the  idle  and  passive 
fantasy  of  the  irresponsible  dawdler  and  day-dreamer; 
but  it  may  also  mean  the  vision  of  the  statesman  or 
prophet  or  poet.  It  begins  in  the  mere  remembrances 
of  past  experience  with  concrete  things  and  sensations. 
It  develops  through  the  child's  dreams  and  fancies, 
and  through  his  plays  and  the  assignment  of  personaUty 
to  his  toys  and  to  the  other  inanimate  objects  around 
him.  Because  of  the  child's  abihty  to  break  off  the 
elements  of  his  experience  from  their  original  settings 
and  to  recombine  them,  imagination  becomes,  finally, 
the  directed  and  purposeful  recombination  of  the 
fragments  of  experience  into  new  wholes. 

Imagination  is  of  tremendous  daily  importance  in 
the  adjustment  of  the  growing  personality  to  its  environ- 
ment. It  is  the  source  of  sympathy  and  understanding 
of  other  persons.  It  makes  possible  the  substitution 
first  of  words  and  other  symbols  and  finally  of  formless 
feeUngs  of  relationship  and  meaning  for  the  original 
crude  representations  of  objects  and  sensations  ex- 
perienced. In  this  way,  thinking  comes  to  be  more 
and  more  abstract.  Imagination  plays  a  large  part  in 
the  ability  of  the  child  to  translate  impressions  re- 
ceived through  one  sense  —  for  example,  hearing  — 
into  understanding  and  action,  as  when  the  spoken 

30 


IMAGINATION  31 

instruction  is  translated  into  the  appropriate  deed,  or 
when  the  spoken  description  is  translated  into  a  clear 
picture  of  the  scene  or  object  described.  It  plays  a 
large  part  in  the  development  of  the  child's  aspirations, 
since  through  it  he  utilizes  his  reading,  the  theater, 
movies,  games,  and  other  secondhand  experiences  to 
think  himself  into  a  large  variety  of  situations,  and 
to  select  for  himself  the  kind  of  Hfe  and  conduct  that 
will  serve  as  his  model.  Finally,  it  plays  an  important 
role  in  the  making  of  practical  plans,  in  the  solution  of 
problems,  in  the  making  of  concrete  things,  and  in  the 
invention  of  new  devices  to  meet  new  situations. 

To  make  possible  the  development  of  the  imagina- 
tion, there  should  be  provided  ample  opportunities  for 
free  play  with  a  great  variety  of  materials.  There 
should  be  stories  appropriate  to  the  successive  years, 
and  pictures  at  all  times.  The  child  should  have  access 
to  various  natural  scenes,  to  institutions,  to  activities 
of  the  community,  and  to  the  thought  of  others.  All 
children  are  given  more  or  less  to  day-dreaming,  which 
is  the  normal  outlet  of  the  unconscious  desires  for  self- 
assertion  and  adventure;  and  this  practice  serves  to  a 
limited  extent  in  preparing  the  child  in  advance  for 
many  situations  he  will  have  to  meet.  An  excessive 
indulgence  in  day-dreaming  is  apt,  however,  to  draw 
the  child  into  himself  and  away  from  the  realities  and 
responsibilities  of  the  common  life.  In  such  cases, 
special  efforts  must  be  made  to  provide  an  abimdance  of 
energetic  and  satisfying  activities  with  real  things  and 
real  people. 


32  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1.  ORIGIN  AND  NATURE   OF  IMAGINATION 

a.  Memory  of  sensory  experience 

b.  Reproductive  imagination 

c.  Productive  imagination 

(1)  Passive 

(2)  Creative 

2.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IMAGINATION 

a.  Natural  growth 

(1)  Dreams  and  wishes 

(2)  Abstraction 

(3)  Animism 

b.  Stimulation  through  special  experiences 

(1)  Stories 

(2)  Games 

(3)  Toys 

(4)  Pictures 

(5)  Dramatics 

c.  Apparent  decline  of  imagination  in  adults 

3.  PRACTICAL   IMPORTANCE   OF  IMAGINATION 

a.  Sympathy  and  understanding 

b.  Relation  to  thinking 

c.  Reading  and  hearing  words 

d.  Planning,  constructing,  and  inventing 

e.  Hopes  and  ambitions 

f .  Religious  experience 

4.  EXCEPTIONAL  AND   MORBID   ASPECTS   OF  IMAGINATION 

a.  Day-dreaming 

b.  Imaginary  companions 

c.  Fear 

d.  Lying 


IMAGINATION  33 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  Ill,  "When  Your  Child  Imagines  Things"; 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Lies  Children  Tell"; 
Chap.  V,  "Being  Afraid" 

Harvey,  N.  A.  —  Imaginary  Playmates  and  Other  Mental 
Phenomena  of  Children: 
Chap.  I,  "Imaginary  Playmates" 

Nice,  Margaret  M.  —  A  Child's  Imagination: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXVI,  173-201,  1919 

Smith,  Nora  A.  —  Training  the  Imagination: 
The  Outlook,  LXIV,  459-461,  1900 

Non-Technical 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:    136- 
139,  155,  259-268 

NoRS WORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood: 
Chap.  IX,  "Imagination" 

Sully,  James  — S^wdy  of  Childhood:  25-63,  203  £f.,  211  ff. 

Technical 

Chalmers,  Lillian  H.  —  Studies  in  Imagination: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  VII,  111-123,  1900 

Dewey,  John  —  Imagination  and  Expression: 

Teachers'  College  Bulletin,  March,  1919 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education: 
53-83 

Winch,  W.  H.  —  Some  Relations  between  Substance  Memory 
and  Productive  Imagination  in  School  Children: 
British  Journal  of  Psychology,  IV,  95-125,  1911 


9.     TRUTH  AND  FALSEHOOD 

The  child  is  not  untruthful  to  begin  with.  He  tries 
to  give  a  correct  statement  of  an  occurrence,  but  often 
his  version  does  not  harmonize  with  the  adult's  under- 
standing of  facts  and  motives.  Sometimes  this  is  due 
to  his  inexperience  and  awkwardness  in  interpretation 
and  expression.  As  his  education  progresses  and  his 
vocabulary  is  enlarged,  misstatements  due  to  these 
causes  will  gradually  disappear.  At  other  times  mis- 
statements are  due  to  defects  of  sensation  and  percep- 
tion and  confusion  of  the  imagined  and  remembered 
with  the  immediate  and  actual.  "WTiile  such  defects 
and  confusions  are  natural  at  an  early  age,  they  should 
be  corrected  by  education  and  training.  Otherwise  the 
child  gradually  learns  to  take  advantage  of  untruth, 
and  may  acquire  the  habit  of  using  it  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.  The  treatment  of  untruth  should  be  directed 
to  finding  and  removing  the  causes  of  temptations  and 
to  cultivating  ideals  of  honor  and  truthfulness. 

OUTLINE 
1.      UBS  THAT  ARE  NOT  LIES 

a.  The  child  says  what  he  means;  but  his  meaning  is 

not  clear,  and  his  power  of  expression  is  Umited 

b.  Defects  of  sensation  hamper  recognition  of  the  truth, 

especially  defective  seeing  and  hearing 

c.  Defects  of  perception 

(1)  Yielding  to  suggestion 

(2)  Drawing  unwarranted  inferences 

(3)  Jumping  to  conclusions 

34 


TRUTH  AND  FALSEHOOD  35 

d.  Defects  of  interpretation,  influenced  by  lack  of  experi- 
ence, by  analogies,  by  own  wishes,  by  sense  of 
fitness 

2.  LIBS   AND    REALITY 

a.  The  child's  hold  on  reality  is  weak 

b.  Dreams  are  not  distinguished  from  waking  percep- 

tions 

c.  Memories  are  confused  with  the  immediate  realities 

d.  Imagination  overlaps  the  actual 

e.  Invention  and  make-believe  invade  concrete  experi- 

ence 

3.  LIES   AND    THE    SELF 

a.  Escape  from  punishment 

b.  Mahngering;  escape  from  the  disagreeable 

c.  Lies  to  "enemies";  truth  to  "friends" 

d.  Secretiveness 

e.  The  braggart;   to  astonish  and  mystify  others 

f.  The  call  for  attention;    exhibitionism 

4.  LIES   AND    EXTERNAL   PRESSURE 

a.  Excitement  and  passion  of  games 

b.  Rivalries  and  distractions 

c.  Frightening  children  into  lying 

d.  Challenging  children  into  lying 

e.  Example  of  older  people 

5.  CONSCIENCE   AND    HEROISM 

a.  Lies  to  shield  or  help  others 

b.  Lies  to  save  the  feelings 

c.  Prevarication 

6.  PREVENTIVE  TREATMENT  OF  LYING 

a.  Find  cause 

b.  Avoid  restrictions,  intimidations,  frights,  etc.,  that 

furnish  the  temptations 


36  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

7.      CONSTRUCTIVE  EFFORTS  TOWARD   TRUTHFULNESS 

a.  Enrichment  of  sense  experience 

b.  Training  in  expression 

c.  Experience  with  reality;  hand  work;  nature  study; 

art;  adventure 

d.  Cultivation  of  understanding  through  conversation, 

discussion,  and  reading 

e.  Cultivation  of  ideals 

f.  Environment  in  which  truthful  relations  are  taken 

for  granted  among  adults;    between  adults  and 
children 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  Mothers  and  Children:  43-46 

Gould,  F.  J.  —  Moral  Instruction  in  Theory  and  Practice: 
139-145 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Lies  Children  Tell" 

Anonymous  —  A  Question  of  Conduct;  Should  He  Have  Told? 
The  Outlook,  July  12,  1913 

Non-Technical 
Adler,  Felix  —  Moral  Instruction  of  Children: 

Chap.  XI,  "The  Duty  of  Acquiring  Knowledge" 

Brill,  A.  A.  —  Fundamental  Conceptions  of  Psychoanalysis: 
200-208 

Drummond,  W.  B.  —  An  Introduction  to  Child  Study:  287-292 

Evans,  Elida  —  The  Problem  of  the  Nervous  Child:  253-256 

Healy,  William  —  Mental  Conflicts  and  Misconduct:  72-73 

KiRKPATRicK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making:  129-131 

Leonard,  Eugenie  A.  —  A  Parent's  Study  of  Children's  Lies: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXVII,  105-136,  1920 


TRUTH  AND  FALSEHOOD  37 

SissoN,  E.  O.  —  Essentials  of  Character:  85-91 
Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood:  251-261,  438-439 
Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child:  205-206,  209,  230,  290,  298 

Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies'. in  Education:  Second  Series,  308- 
313 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Educational  Problems: 

Vol.  I,  Chap.  VI,  ''Children's  Lies:  Their  Psychol- 
ogy and  Pedagogy" 

Latham,  H.  L.  —  A  Study  of  Falsehood: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXI,  504-522,  1914 


49353 


10.    CURIOSITY 

Plato  called  curiosity  the  "Mother  of  Knowledge," 
and  it  may  be  thought  of  as  an  appetite  for  new  experi- 
ence or  for  new  kinds  of  experience.  In  the  infantile 
stage  it  appears  to  be  simply  the  desire  for  the  satis- 
factions that  come  from  new  sensations  —  seeing,  hear- 
ing, tasting,  touching  —  and  accounts  for  much  of  the 
child's  unlimited  capacity  for  getting  into  mischief. 
Curiosity  appears  not  only  in  the  incessant  questioning 
and  in  the  handling  and  "trying"  of  all  objects,  but  also 
in  the  prying  into  closed  spaces,  in  the  playing  of  hiding- 
and-finding  games  and  in  numberless  experiments  with 
his  own  organs  and  suiTounding  objects,  such  as  distort- 
ing the  vision  by  pressing  the  eyeballs  and  as  peering 
between  his  fingers;  and  later  it  appears  as  the  interest 
in  "stunts"  and  puzzles.  The  child  should  at  each 
stage  be  encouraged  to  find  the  answers  to  his  questions 
or  the  solutions  to  his  problems,  rather  than  to  get 
them  ready-made  from  others  or  to  abandon  them 
because  the  solutions  involve  too  much  efifort. 

From  this  interest  in  the  novel  and  hidden  or  forbid- 
den may  come  exploratory  wanderings.  At  first  an 
unconscious  discomfort  urges  the  child  to  find  what  lies 
around  the  corner  or  beyond  the  horizon;  later  a 
wondering  about  the  foot  of  the  rainbow  or  what  fate 
has  in  store  for  him;  and  at  last,  perhaps,  a  search  for 
the  hidden  meaning  of  life  and  destiny  or  for  the  lost 
Atlantis. 

36 


CURIOSITY  39 

This  irresistible  impulse  to  reach  in  thought  and  in 
feeUng  beyond  the  immediate  present  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  education,  since  it  makes  possible  the  fixing 
of  the  attention  so  necessary  for  all  kinds  of  learning, 
as  well  as  the  leading  on  to  new  levels  of  thought,  of 
experience,  and  of  ideals  or  purpose.  The  direction 
and  the  satisfaction  of  curiosity  cannot  be  left  to  chance. 

Sublimation  of  curiosity  may  take  the  form  of 
systematic  research  in  some  branch  of  learning;  of  active 
investigation  into  some  current  problem;  of  the  pro- 
fessionaUzing  of  some  special  interest  as  in  certain 
branches  of  law,  medicine,  industrial  engineering, 
administration,  detective  work,  and  so  on;  of  the  de- 
velopment of  a  hobby  involving  the  mastery  of  special- 
ized information,  exploration  and  the  hke;  and  of 
habitual  open-mindedness. 

Repression  of  curiosity,  especially  on  the  sex  side, 
leads  often  to  the  eavesdropping  or  "  Peeping-Tom " 
types  of  perversion;  or  to  general  indifference  about 
matters  of  no  immediate  concern ;  to  discouragement  of 
the  imagination ;  or  to  certain  types  of  day-dreaming,  in 
which  there  is  escape  from  the  hardships  and  responsibili- 
ties of  progressive  hving.  A  restricted  or  repressive  envi- 
ronment may  also  result  in  making  gossip  or  other  trivial 
interests  replace  a  natural  curiosity  that  is  normally 
capable  of  cultivation  into  forms  that  are  worth  while. 

OUTLINE 
1.      EARLY   MANIFESTATIONS 

a.  Sensory  and  motor  trials 

(1)  Staring 

(2)  Listening 

(3)  Grasping  and  tasting 


40  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

b.  Games  —  Hide-and-Seek  type 

c.  Searching  activities 

d.  Comparison  with  animals 

2.  QUESTIONS 

a.  Forms  of  questions  —  What,  Why 

b.  Answering  questions 

c.  Idle  questioning 

d.  Stunts,  puzzles,  tricks,  games 

e.  Sex  differences 

f.  Reanimation  of  curiosity  at  puberty 

3.  EXPLORATION   AND    VAGRANCY 

a.  The  meaning  of  runaway  at  various  ages 

(1)  The  aimless  wandering  off 

(2)  Planned  runaway 

(3)  Influence  of  other  factors 

b.  Sex  differences 

c.  Forcing  of  closed  spaces,  drawers,  cupboards,  etc. 

4.  IMPORTANCE  FOR  EDUCATION 

a.  Source  of  interest  and  attention 

b.  Grading  of  subjects,  topics  and  methods  according  to 

stages  of  development 

c.  Utilization  of  experimental  method 

d.  Leading  on  from  things,  to  facts,  principles,  laws 

5.  DIRECTION   AND    SUBLIMATION 

a.  Variety  of  occupation  and  experience 

b.  Travel  and  its  substitutes  —  reading,  theater,  visit- 

ing, and  visitors 

c.  Variety  of  studies,  access  to  satisfying  information 

d.  Variety  of  personal  contacts 

e.  From  trivialities  and  gossip  and  scandal  to  higher 

standards  of  "news" 

6.  PERVERSIONS 

a.  Runaways 

b.  Lying,  romancing;   day-dreaming 

c.  Peeping-Tom;  voyeur 

d.  Eavesdropping,  informer,  gossip,  and  scandalmonger 


CURIOSITY  41 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  Mothers  and  Children:   51-61,  "An- 
swering the  Children's  Questions" 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:    75-78,    91-95, 
112-113,  151-154,  219-222 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 

Chap.  XXIII,  "The  Skeptic",  130-131, 

SissoN,  E.  O.  —  Essentials  of  Character:  9-12,  80-85 

Swift,  E.  J.  —  Youth  and  the  Race: 

Chap.  I,  "The  Spirit  of  Adventure" 

Waddle,  Charles  W.  —  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology: 
116-118,  218 

Non-Technical 
Groos,  K\rl  —  The  Play  of  Animals:  214-222 
Hall  and  Smith  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education: 
"Curiosity  and  Interest"  (G.  Stanley  HaU),  84-141 
(reprinted  from  Pedagogical  Seminary,  X,  315- 
358,   1903).     (Although  technical  in  form,  this 
paper  is  very  concrete  and  helpful  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  many-sided  manifestations  of  the 
impulses  studied.) 
KiRKPATRicK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 
Chap.  X,  "Curiosity,"  59-60 

Technical 
Hall,  G.  Stanley.  —  Adolescence:  Vol.  I,  85-86 
Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood: 

"The  Questioning  Age,"  75-90,  225,  240-242,  445- 
447,  485 
Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Educational  Psychology;  Briefer  Course: 
63-66 


11.     FEAR 

Contrary  to  common  belief,  it  appears  from  experi- 
ments that  fear  of  specific  objects  or  dangers  is  not  a 
natural  instinct  but  a  cultivated  attitude  that  is  neither 
useful  nor  unavoidable.  Infants  from  very  birth 
manifest  fear  under  certain  well-defined  conditions, 
namely,  a  sharp  sudden  noise,  a  sudden  pain,  or  being 
suddenly  dropped,  or  jarred,  especially  when  just  falling 
asleep.  The  fear  of  dogs  and  other  natural  objects 
seems  to  be  acquired  through  association  with  the 
barking,  etc.,  and  to  be  transferred  to  strange  faces, 
silent  animals,  fuzzy  objects,  strangely  moving  objects. 
Any  sudden  sound  or  movement  may  result  in  a  fright ; 
and  any  object,  person  or  situation  associated  with  pain 
or  with  fright  may  later  arouse  fear.  In  this  way  almost 
any  object  may  become  a  fear  object.  Later  the  child's 
imagination  projects  the  feeling  of  fear  into  the  dark- 
ness, into  his  solitude,  into  his  discomfort  or  sickness, 
or  indeed  into  any  mysterious  situation. 

Fear  in  infancy  brings  about  clasping  and  other 
random  movements ;  later  it  leads  either  to  running- 
away  or  escape  movements,  or  to  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete inhibition  of  all  voluntary  movement.  This 
''paralyzing"  effect  reaches  the  heart  and  blood- 
vessels on  the  one  hand,  and  the  central  associative 
tracts  of  the  brain  on  the  other.  Frequent  frights 
result  in  discouragement,  timidity,  secretiveness,  and 
anxiety.     Various  "phobias"  involving  serious  morbid 

42 


FEAR  43 

conditions  have  been  traced  to  infantile  or  childish 
shocks  related  to  fright.  The  bigoted  and  hostile 
attitude  toward  strange  ideas,  toward  foreigners, 
toward  innovations  of  various  kinds,  are  in  part  manifes- 
tations of  unreasoned  fear  persisting  from  childhood. 
In  general,  persecution  and  resort  to  violence  for 
attaining  pubUc  ends  represent  traces  of  the  infantile 
feehng  of  helplessness  in  the  presence  of  danger  or  of 
mysterious  power. 

Although  fear  may  be  effectively  used  as  a  deterrent 
for  infants  and  children,  the  wisdom  of  its  employment 
for  "disciplinary"  purposes  is  something  worse  than 
doubtful.  We  must  distinguish  between  fear  and 
caution,  the  former  resting  on  ignorance,  the  latter  on 
knowledge.  The  child's  imagination  enables  him  to 
transfer  monsters  and  hobgoblins  from  stories  and 
menageries  to  the  vacant  darkness.  But  the  same 
capacity  enables  him  to  substitute  the  unfavorable 
judgment  of  others,  or  of  his  conscience,  for  the  physical 
pain  or  punishment  which  he  has  already  learned  to 
hate  and  to  fear,  and  thus  to  sublimate  his  cowardice 
into  the  "fear  of  God." 

Since  it  is  the  unknown,  or  the  unpredictable,  or  the 
uncontrollable,  that  causes  fear,  the  mental  health  and 
the  courage  of  the  child  require  extensive  and  intensive 
knowledge  of  his  environment  and  of  natural  phenom- 
ena, and  the  wide  range  of  experience  that  gives  mastery 
and  self-confidence.  Since  fear  is  the  feeling  of  helpless- 
ness and  incompetence,  we  should  avoid  discouragement 
through  fright  and  ridicule;  and  we  should  give  the 
child  every  opportunity  to  acquire  that  control  over 
himself  and  over  his  environment  which  is  essential  for 


44  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

his  development  and  self-expression.  The  best  anti- 
dotes for  fear  are  curiosity  that  can  find  satisfaction, 
and  opportunity  for  the  free  outlet  of  the  normal 
impulses. 

OUTLINE 

1.  SOURCES   OF   FEAR 

a.  Frights 

(1)  Startling  sounds 

(2)  Sudden  jar  or  dropping 

(3)  Sudden  and  unexpected  pain 

b.  Substituted  fright-objects 

(1)  Animals 

(2)  Ugly  faces,  etc. 

(3)  Furry  surfaces 

c.  Projected  fright-conditions 

(1)  Darkness 

(2)  Height 

(3)  Solitude 

(4)  Strange  persons  and  objects 

(5)  Stories 

d.  Associated  fright-concepts 

(1)  Authority,  punishment,  threats,  brutality,  etc. 

(2)  Judgment  of  others,  disapproval,  scolding,  nag- 

ging, ridicule 

2.  EFFECTS  OF  FEAR 

a.  Paralyzing  and  inhibitory 

b.  Flight 

c.  Discouragement 

d.  Anxiety 

e.  Secretiveness,  lying 

f.  Cruelty,  persecution,  bigotry 

3.  USES    OF   FEAR 

a.  Necessary  deterrent  in  infancy 

b.  Cultivation  of  caution 

c.  Abhorrence  of  anti-social  impulses 


FEAR  45 

4.      PREVENTION   AND    TREATMENT 

a.  Avoid  frights 

b.  Familiarize  with  environment  and  phenomena 

c.  Exalt  courage  and  heroism 

d.  Avoid  ridicule 

e.  Cultivate  curiosity  and  exact  knowledge 

f .  Substitute  reason  for  impulse 

g.  Make  game  of  resisting  shocks 

b.  Direct  aversions  toward  the  mean  and  unworthy 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
BiRNEY,  Mrs.  Theodore  —  Childhood: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Fear,  Anxiety,  and  Grief" 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-M arrow: 
Chap.  V,  "Being  Afraid" 

Mosso,  Angelo  —  Fear: 

Chap.  XIII,  "Fear  in  Children,  Dreams" 
RowE,  S.  H.  —  Fear  in  the  Discipline  of  Children: 

The  Outlook,  LX,  234,  September  24,  1898 

Non-Technical 
Jennings,  Watson,  Meyer,  and  Thomas  —  Suggestions  of 

Modern  Science  Concerning  Education:    "Practical 

and  Theoretical  Problems  in  Instinct  and  Habit" 

(J.  B.  Watson),  51-99 
King,  Irving  —  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development:  56-63 
KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:  99-104 
St.  John,  E.  P.  —  Child  Nature  and  Child  Nurture: 

Chap.  IV,  "How  to  Deal  with  the  Child's  Feajs" 
Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood: 

Chap.  VI,  "Subject  to  Fear" 
Wallas,  G.  —  The  Great  Society: 

Chap.  VI,  "Fear" 


46  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Technical 
Frink,  H.  W.  —  Morbid  Fears  and  Compulsions:    122-123, 
252,  263-266; 
Chap.  VIII,  "The  Psychology  of  Anxiety  Hysteria" 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  A  Genetic  Study  of  Fear: 

American  Journal  of  Psychology,  XXL,  149  ff.,  1914 

Lord,  H.  G.  —  Psychology  of  Courage: 
Chap.  I-X,  XIII 

McDouGALL,  W.  —  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology: 
50-55 

SiDis,  B.  —  Fear,  Anxiety,  and  Psychopathic  Maladies: 

J(mrnal  of  Abnormal  Psychology,  VI,  107  ff.,  1911- 
1912 

Watson,  J.  B.  —  Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Be- 
havi&rist:  198-206 

Williams,  T,  A.  —  Fear  and  Its  Cure: 

National  Education  Association  Addresses  and  Pro- 
ceedings, 1914,  836 


12.     IMITATION  AND  SUGGESTION 

Imitation,  which  is  a  universal  characteristic  of 
human  beings  of  all  ages,  is  to  be  thought  of  not  as 
representing  a  psychological  quality  or  faculty,  but  as 
the  result  of  certain  relations  between  the  individual 
and  others.  Any  sensation  or  act  that  impresses  the 
child,  whether  through  its  intensity,  through  its 
frequency,  or  through  its  pleasurable  accompaniment, 
will  set  up  a  reaction  that  tends  to  repeat  the  sensation, 
or  the  reflex.  Thus,  a  flash  of  light  that  makes  him 
blink  (without  frightening  him)  will  result  presently  in  a 
succession  of  blinking.  From  imitating  sounds  and 
gestures  and  movements,  the  child  proceeds  to  react  to 
suggestions  in  the  form  of  words,  which  at  first  have  no 
meaning  except  that  they  are  associated  with,  and 
suggest,  actions.  New  words  represent  ideas  and  he 
reacts  to  these.  In  short,  he  learns  to  understand  other 
people,  to  respond  to  their  verbal  expressions,  in  part 
by  learning  the  meaning  of  what  is  said  or  done  to  him 
in  terms  of  his  own  reaction  to  the  impression  he 
receives.  Thus  imitation  is  for  the  young  child,  as  it 
is  for  the  young  of  many  other  animals,  the  process 
through  which  he  acquires  a  large  part  of  his  adjust- 
ment to  his  surroundings. 

At  about  three  years  of  age,  as  self-consciousness 
begins  to  take  form,  there  appears  a  period  of  con- 
trariness, which  may  be  thought  of  as  the  child's 
experimentation  in  self-control  or  self-reliance.    It  is 

47 


48  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

as  though  the  child,  seeing  himself  respond  automati- 
cally to  suggestions  from  others,  wonders  whether  he  has 
any  control  in  the  matter,  and  assures  himself  of  his 
own  "freedom"  by  resisting  or  opposing  these  sugges- 
tions. This  stage  presents  a  difficult  problem  unless 
we  are  prepared  to  help  the  child  find  himself  rather 
than  to  insist  upon  our  greater  power.  The  opportunity 
to  discover  his  freedom  in  relation  to  his  games,  to  the 
making  of  things  (large  blocks,  sand  pile,  etc.)  that 
give  him  models  from  which  he  may  depart  to  his 
heart's  desire,  may  avoid  "conflict  of  wills."  The 
simplest,  the  most  primitive  assertion  of  individuaHty 
is  just  this  inversion,  an  imitation  by  doing  the  opposite. 

Imitation  shows  itself  in  a  new  phase  when  the 
period  of  rivalry  sets  in,  at  about  seven  to  nine  years. 
Here  the  self-assertiveness,  or  desire  for  notice,  takes 
the  form  of  seeking  to  excel  others.  This  is  as  though 
the  child,  ignorant  of  his  own  possibihties  and  of  the 
resources  of  his  environment,  gets  suggestions  of  what 
to  do  from  the  doings  of  others ;  but  gets  the  satisfaction 
of  distinctiveness  from  doing  the  same  thing  in  a 
superlative  or,  at  least,  superior  degree. 

The  development  of  the  child's  personality  should 
lead  to  the  point  where  he  deliberately  selects  the 
models  he  is  to  follow,  where  he  selects  different  models 
for  different  purposes,  not  following  his  hero  bindly  in 
all  things,  and  where  he  finally  designs  his  own  behavior 
or  character  pattern  along  distinctive  lines. 

The  suggestibihty  of  the  child  places  upon  those 
responsible  for  the  direction  of  his  development  the 
obHgation  of  surrounding  him  with  worthy  specimens 
of  sound  and  form  and  personality,  whether  at  home 


IMITATION  AND  SUGGESTION  49 

or  in  school  or  on  the  street,  whether  in  the  spoken 
word  or  in  the  book,  whether  in  the  approvals  or  dis- 
approvals, and  above  all  in  actual  conduct.  Imitation 
will  be  influenced  by  the  affections ;  but  often  enough  a 
person  who  has  aroused  dislike  will  have  made  a 
sufficiently  strong  impression  to  bring  about  uncon- 
scious imitation. 

While  imitativeness  with  passivity  results  in  flat, 
conventionaUzed  types  of  human  beings,  imitativeness 
supplies  the  aggressive,  purposeful  person  his  greatest 
resource  for  original  and  creative  activities, 

OUTLINE 

1.  SOURCES 

a.  Motor  outlet  for  stimulation 

b.  Reflex  tending  to  reproduce  stimulus,  or  to  repetition 

of  reflex 

c.  Effects  of  sounds,  grimaces,  movements 

2.  DEVELOPMENT 

a.  Repetition 

b.  Obedience  to  suggestion  or  associated  word,  gesture, 

etc. 

c.  Response  to  idea 

d.  Dramatization 

e.  Voluntary  choice  of  models 

f .  Original  recombinations 

3.  PRACTICAL   EFFECTS 

a.  Protective  value  in  infancy 

b.  Basis  for  language  and  other  learning 

c.  Social  cohesion 

d.  Effects  upon  sympathy  and  group  attitudes 


50  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

4.      APPLICATIONS 

a.  Selection  of  models  for  child's  environment 

b.  Opportunity  for  self-assertion  without  conflict 

c.  Affection  to  reinforce  guidance 

d.  Graded  progression  to  individuality 

e.  Avoidance  of  overstressing  either  the  conventional 

proprieties  or  the  extreme  variants 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  VIII,  " Development  of  Adaptive  Instincts" 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child: 

Chap.  XV,  ''Growth  in  Control  of  the  Body" 

Non-Technical 

BoGARDUS,  E.  S.  —  Essentials  of  Social  Psychology: 

Chap.  V,  "The  Social  Operation  of  Imitation"; 
Chap.  VI,  "Suggestion"; 
Chap.  VII,  "Imitation"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Phenomena" 

Gault,  R.  H.  —  Suggestion  and  Suggestibility: 

American  Journal  of  Sociology,  XXV,  185-194,  1919 

McDouGALL,  William  —  A7i  Introduction  to  Social  Psychol- 
ogy: 96-107,  325-345 

NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood:  70-73 

WooDWORTH,  R.  S.  —  Psychology:  317-319,  546-550 

Technical 

Brown,  Warner  —  Individual  and  Sex  Differences  in  Sug- 
gestibility 

King,  Irving  —  Psychology  of  Child  Development: 
Chap.  X,  "Imitation" 


IMITATION  AND  SUGGESTION  51 

Sandiford,   Peter  —  Mental  and  Physical  Ldfe  of  School 
Children: 
Chap.  XII,  "Imitation  and  Suggestion" 

Watson,  J.  B.  —  Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Be- 
haviorist:  259 

WooDWORTH,  R.  S.  —  Dynamic  Psychology:  66,  181-191 


13.     INSTINCT  AND  HABIT 

Every  normal  child  is  born  with  a  nervous  system 
that  is  so  arranged  that  various  stimulations  of  the 
skin  or  of  the  sense  organs  bring  about  fixed  responses. 
These  responses  to  stimulation  are  unavoidable  and  in 
many  cases  can  be  brought  about  in  the  first  place  in 
no  way  except  by  the  corresponding  stimulation. 
Certain  combinations  of  these  reactions  are  called 
instincts,  and  they  are  often  related  to  the  adaptive 
adjustment  of  the  child  to  his  surroundings,  as  in  the 
sucking  response  to  an  object  brought  into  the  mouth. 
From  time  to  time,  in  the  course  of  the  child's  develop- 
ment, there  appear  new  modes  of  responding  to  the 
stimulations  aroused  by  the  environment;  and  some  of 
the  earlier  instincts  in  turn  disappear. 

These  native  modes  of  reacting  to  the  environment, 
and  the  spontaneous  interests  and  desires,  are  capable 
of  considerable  modification,  or  of  relatively  permanent 
fixation.  The  fixed  modes  of  behavior,  whether 
identical  with  the  oringinal  ones,  or  modifications  of 
them,  are  called  habits ;  and  these  habits  may  eventually 
represent  practically  the  whole  of  the  adult  scheme 
of  conduct  or  character  —  that  is,  the  unfaiUng  mode  of 
action  either  as  a  matter  of  routine  or  as  a  matter  of 
responding  to  whatever  new  situation  may  present 
itself.  The  formation  of  habits  thus  comes  to  be  of 
prime  importance  in  the  guidance  of  the  child's  develop- 
ment. 

52 


INSTINCT  AND  HABIT  53 

The  fixation  of  primitive  modes  of  action  comes 
about  ordinarily  from  continued  repetition.  But  the 
infant  soon  outgrows  both  the  need  and  the  opportunity 
to  repeat  his  primary  responses  without  modification. 
The  modification  of  the  instinctive  activities  is  illus- 
trated by  the  process  through  which  the  secretions  of 
the  salivary  glands  (watering  of  the  mouth)  comes  to  be 
a  response  to  stimulation  far  removed  from  that  which 
is  the  primary  or  original  ''cause"  of  the  action, 
namely,  the  tasting  of  satisfying  (palatable)  food. 
We  gradually  substitute  the  sight  or  odor  of  food  as  a 
stimulus  to  saHvation,  then  the  sight  of  a  picture, 
perhaps,  then  the  mention  of  food,  or  the  sound  of  the 
dinner  bell,  or  the  sight  of  printed  words  suggesting 
food,  or  a  dinner  invitation.  That  is  to  say,  in  the 
course  of  development,  the  child  is  capable  of  responding 
automatically  in  a  typical  way  to  a  variety  of  stimuli 
that  have  been  substituted  for  the  original  stimulus. 

In  the  formation  of  habits  the  substitutions  are 
facihtated  by  pleasurable  emotional  accompaniments; 
they  are  retarded  or  prevented  by  unpleasurable  ac- 
companiments. This  is  true  whether  the  child  is 
''learning"  to  form  intellectual  associations,  or  purely 
muscular  acts;  and  it  is  true  in  the  formation  of  associa- 
tions that  result  in  attitudes  toward  people,  toward 
ideas,  etc. 

Education,  or  character  formation,  or  training, 
may  be  considered  as  a  process  of  instinct-modification, 
or  habit-formation,  and  these  involve  not  merely 
repetitions  (practise)  but  also  the  free  and  energetic 
discharge  of  pleasurable  feeling.  The  education  of  the 
individual    should    be    thought    of    as    a    continuous 


54  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

process,  never  finished;  and  eventually  the  child  must 
come  to  direct  his  own  habit  formation  as  a  conscious 
and  deliberate  adaptation  to  ideals. 


OUTLINE 

1.  INHERITED    BEHAVIOR    PATTERNS 

a.  Stimulus  and  response 

b.  Kinds  of  native  responses 

c.  Succession  and  fading  out  of  instincts 

2.  MODIFICATION    OF    INSTINCTS 

a.  Conditioned  reflex  and  association 

b.  Inhibition 

c.  "Learning" 

3.  FACTORS    IN    HABIT    FORMATION 

a.  Intensity  of  stimulation  or  action 

b.  Frequency  and  duration  of  "practise" 

c.  Emotional  element 

4.  HABIT   AND    SELF   DIRECTION 


a.  Habit  as  acquired  behavior  pattern 

b.  Continued  capacity  for  modification 

c.  Influence  of  suggestion  and  ideals 


REFERENCES 

Popular 

GoDDARD,  H.  H.  —  Psychologtj  of  the  Normal  and  Subnormal: 
Chap.  XII,  "Habit" 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:   167-176 

Holmes,  A.  W.  —  Principles  of  Character  Makiyig:   94-103, 
110-112,  114-124; 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Making  and  Breaking  of  Habits" 


INSTINCT  AND  HABIT  55 

Jennings,  Watson,  Meyer,  and  Thomas  —  Suggestions  of 
Modern  Science  Concerning  Education:  "Practical 
and  Theoretical  Problems  in  Instinct  and  Habits" 
(J.  B.  Watson),  55-99 

Non-Technical 
NoRSWORTH  and  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood: 

Chap.  II,  "The  Characteristics  of  Original  Nature " ; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Tendencies  Resulting  in  Action;  Non- 
Social  Instincts"; 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Social  Instincts"; 
Chap.  XI,  "General  Tendencies  of  all  the  Tenden- 
cies— Habit  and  Learning" 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Principles  of  Teaching  Based  on  Psy- 
chology: 
Chap.  Ill,  "Instincts  and  Capacities"; 
Chap.  VII,  "Attention"; 
Chap.  XI,  "Responses  of  Conduct" 

Waddle,  C.  W.  —  An  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology: 
Chap.  V,  "Non-Learned  Human  Behavior" 

Technical 

Cannon,  W.  B.  —  Bodily  Changes  in  Fear,  Pain,  Hunger,  and 
Rage: 

Chap.  XII,    "The   Energizing   Influence   of   Emo- 
tional Excitement"; 

Chap.  XV,  "The  Inter-Relations  of  Emotions" 
Crile,  G.  W.  — Man,  an  Adaptive  Mechanism: 

Chap.  I,  "Adaptation  to  Environment"; 

Chap.  II,  "The  Nervous  System"; 

Chap.  Ill,    "Adaptation    by    Means    of    Contact 
Ceptors"; 

Chap.  IV,    "Adaptation   by   Means   of   Chemical 
Ceptors  and  Chemical  Activity"; 

Chap.  XII,  "Action  Patterns;    Consciousness  and 
Sleep" 


56  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  XII,  "Development  of  Instincts  —  Various 

Resultant  Instincts  and  Feelings"; 
Chap.  XV,  "Heredity" 

Watson,  J.  B.  — Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Be- 
haviorist: 

Chap.  VII,  "Hereditary  Modes  of  Response:  In- 
stinct"; 

Chap.  VIII,  "The  Genesis  and  Retention  of  Ex- 
plicit Bodily  Habits"; 

Chap.  IX,  "The  Genesis  and  Retention  of  Explicit 
and  Implicit  Language  Habits" 


14.     FREEDOM  AND  DISCIPLINE 

In  painful  recognition  of  the  fact  that  each  human 
being  must  attain  to  a  mastery  over  the  natural  impulses 
which  interfere,  when  given  free  play,  with  his  harmo- 
nious relation  too  thers,  we  have  through  generations  of 
struggle  developed  the  principle  of  discipline.  It  is 
indeed  necessary  that  we  learn  to  control  ourselves  — 
our  actions,  our  speech,  our  feelings  and  our  facial 
expressions.  Otherwise  there  is  no  living  together  and 
human  living  means  living  together. 

Moreover,  it  is  necessary  for  each  to  learn  to  do 
skilfully  and  cheerfullj^  many  things  that  do  not  come 
"naturally;"  and  it  is  often  necessary  to  do  what  is 
positively  disagreeable. 

For  all  these  reasons  "discipline"  is  resorted  to. 
And  discipline  has  meant  the  coercion  of  the  body  and 
soul,  under  penalty  of  fear  and  suffering,  to  the  doing  of 
what  is  needed  until  the  habits  shall  have  been  estab- 
hshed. 

The  new  psychology  upon  which  rests  the  doctrine 
of  "interest"  or  freedom  in  education  does  not  deny 
that  training  and  discipline  are  necessary.  It  ques- 
tions merely  the  permanent  effectiveness  or  value  of 
habits  and  attitudes  acquired  through  coercion,  as 
compared  with  those  acquired  through  the  exploitation 
of  the  child's  spontaneous  and  cultivated  interests. 

It  is  found  that  there  is  no  necessary  connection 
between  suffering  and  virtue;  that  what  is  acquired 

57 


58  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

under  duress  is  rejected  at  the  first  opportunity;  that 
it  is  actually  possible  to  get  the  desired  self-control 
and  skill  and  character  through  appeals  to  interest;  and 
finally  that  the  child  can  learn  to  use  freedom  as  an 
adult  only  through  continuous  and  progressive  experi- 
ence with  freedom. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THEORIES   OF   DISCIPLINE   AND    TRAINING 

a.  Authoritative  direction  and  obedience 

b.  The  burnt  child  —  "Natural  discipline" 

c.  Learn  to  do  by  doing 

d.  Development  as  self  discovery 

2.  SCIENTIFIC    BASES 

a.  Emotion  and  habit  formation 

b.  The  purpose  in  relation  to  concentration  and  effort 

c.  The  interest  as  a  unifying  force 

d.  Freedom  vs.  compulsion  as  affecting  attitude 

e.  Other  disciplinary  forces 

(1)  Pubhc  opinion 

(2)  Rewards  and  punishments 

3.  EXPERIMENTAL   SCHOOLS 

a.  Methods  used 

b.  Results 

c.  Comparisons  with  older  types  of  schools 

(1)  Scholarship 

(2)  Conduct 

(3)  Permanency  of  effect 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

Abbott,  E.  H.  —  On  the  Training  of  Parents: 
Chap.  Ill,  "By  Rule  of  Wit" 


FREEDOM  AND  DISCIPLINE  69 

Adler,  Felix  —  The  Punishment  of  Children 

Allen,  Anna  W.  —  Home,  School,  and  Vacation:  116-159 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  Mothers  and  Children: 
"Obedience,"  97-168 

Oilman,  Charlotte  P.  —  Concerning  Children: 

Chap.  II,  "The  Effect  of  Minding  on  the  Mind" 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  Tomorrow: 
Chap.  II,  "Problems  of  Punishment"; 
Chap.  VI,  "The  First  Great  Law" 

Kilpatrick,  William  H,  —  Horace  Mann  Studies  in  Pri- 
mary Education:  Teachers  College  Record,  March, 
1919 
Project  Method:    Teachers  College  Record,  October 
12,  1918 

Non-Technical 
Bagley,  W.  C.  —  The  Educative  Process: 

Chap.  XIII,  "Formal  vs.  Intrinsic  Values  of  Ex- 
perience:  The  Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline" 

Dewey,  John  —  Interest  and  Discipline 

Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn  —  Schools  of  To-Morrow 

Griggs,  E.  H.  —  Moral  Education: 

Chap.  XIV,  "The  Progressive  Application  of  De- 
mocracy in  Home  and  School  Government"; 

Chap.  XV,  "The  Nature  and  Function  of  Correc- 
tive DiscipUne" 

James,  William  —  Talks  to  Teachers: 
Chap.  X,  "Interest"; 
Chap.  XI,  "Attention" 

KiRKPATRicK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  XI,  "Development  of  Instincts  —  Regula- 
tive" 


60  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood: 
Chap.  VI,  "Attention" 

SissoN,  E.  O.  —  Essentials  of  Character:  63-74 

Technical 

Spencer,  Herbert  —  Education: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Moral  Education" 

Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood: 
Chap.  VUI,  "Under  Law" 


15.     CONSTRUCTING  AND  DESTROYING 

From  the  random,  formless  movements  of  infancy 
there  gradually  emerges  organized  activity  that  pro- 
duces concrete  effects  upon  the  objects  of  the  child's 
environment.  And  many  of  these  effects  are  of  a 
kind  that  are  injurious,  if  not  to  the  child,  at  least  to 
the  objects.  If  these  objects  are  of  value,  there  is 
protest  against  the  "  destructiveness "  of  the  child, 
although  similar  activities  applied  to  worthless  materials 
are  tolerated  as  being  in  no  way  objectionable.  From 
the  child's  viewpoint,  however,  these  activities  are  to 
be  considered  on  the  one  hand  as  merely  explorations 
into  the  properties  of  the  materials  around  him,  and 
on  the  other  hand,  as  explorations  into  his  own  powers 
over  his  environment.  These  destructive  activities 
probably  have  other  elements  in  their  make-up,  such 
as  the  satisfaction  which  the  child  finds  in  asserting 
himself,  and  in  producing  results  that  he  feels  are 
caused  by  himself.  There  is  also  the  element  of  imita- 
tion, as  in  so  much  of  the  child's  activities  in  general. 

The  impulses  leading  to  these  destructive  activities, 
instead  of  being  repressed,  need  mainly  guidance  and 
development.  With  suitable  play  material  and  toys, 
the  impulses  find  outlet  and  satisfaction ;  and  gradually 
the  activities  come  to  be  organized  into  "constructive" 
ones,  involving  higher  and  higher  levels  of  interest, 
and  more  and  more  remote  purposes.  As  an  element 
in  the  child's  intellectual  education,  the  constructive 
work  seems  to  be  increasingly  appreciated;  and  for 

61 


62  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

many  children,  a  large  amount  of  concrete  experience, 
especially  of  the  manipulative  and  constructive  kind, 
is  an  essential  basis  for  the  formation  of  abstractions. 
Constructive  experience,  developed  under  suitable 
guidance,  will  not  only  replace  random  and  destructive 
or  indifferent  activities  but  may  serve  in  forming  the 
proper  attitudes  and  appreciations  in  relation  to  work- 
manship and  skill,  as  well  as  in  the  formation  of  ideals 
of  performance. 

OUTLINE 

1.  ORIGINS   AND    MANIFESTATIONS 

a.  Undifferentiated  random  movements 

(1)  Exercise  of  sensations 

(2)  Exercise  of  muscles 

b.  Curiosity  factor 

c.  Imitation 

d.  Satisfaction  in  producing  results 

(1)  Self-assertiveness 

(2)  "Sadistic"  impulse  (pleasure  in  causing  suf- 

fering) 

e.  Inventiveness 

f.  Sex  differences 

2.  DEVELOPMENT   AND    DIRECTION 

a.  Toys 

b.  Things  to  take  apart 

c.  Materials  to  work  upon  —  paper,  blocks,  clay,  sand, 

cloth,  etc. 

d.  Tools 

e.  Art  materials 

3.  RELATION    TO    EDUCATION 

a.  Value  of  hand  work  as  part  of  daily  routine 

(1)  Release  of  tension 

(2)  Acquirement  of  motor  and  emotional  control 

b.  Medium  for  discovering  the  work  of  the  world 

c.  Means  for  reveahng  special  capacities  and  interests 

d.  Basis  of  experience  for  abstract  thinking 


CONSTRUCTING  AND  DESTROYING  63 

4.      RELATION   TO   ATTITUDE 

a.  Valuation  of  things  in  terms  of  what  it  takes  to 

produce  them 

b.  Appreciation  of  skill  and  workmanship 

c.  Development  of  satisfying  means  of  self-expression 

d.  Development  of  purposes  to  higher  levels 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
FORBUSH,  W.  B.  —  Manual  of  Play: 

Chap.  XVI,  ''Constructive  Play,"  221-223; 
Bibliography  on  constructive  plays,  games,  and  oc- 
cupations, 337-343 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  183-191 

Johnson,  George  E.  —  Education  by  Plays  and  Games:  45, 
90,  98-99,  158-159 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A,  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:    62, 
207-208,  265-268 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 

Chap.  XV,  "Construction,"  127-128,  452-460 

SiES,  A.  C.  —  Spontaneous  and  Supervised  Play  in  Childhood, 
Part  II 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Educational  Psychology;  Briefer  Course: 
62-63 

Non-Technical 
Dewey,  John  —  School  and  Society:  31-33,  38 
Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn  —  Schools  of  Tomorrow: 

Chap.  IV,  "Reorganizing  the  Curriculum"; 

Chap.  X,  "Education  through  Industry" 
Groos,  Karl  —  The  Play  of  Man:  97-101 
Marot,  Helen  —  The  Creative  Impulse  in  Industry: 

Chap.  I,  "Production  and  Creative  Effort"; 

Chap.  IV,  "Educational  Industry  and  Associated 
Enterprises" 


64  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Educational  Problems: 

Chap.  VIII,  "Vocational  Education" 

Hall  and  Smith  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education: 
"Curiosity  and  Interest"  (G.  Stanley  Hall),  84-141. 
(Reprinted  from  Pedagogical  Seminary,  X,  315- 
358,  1903.) 

Kent,  Ernest  B.  —  Constructive  Interests  of  Children 


16.    TOYS  AND  TOOLS 

It  is  just  as  natural  to  work  as  it  is  to  play,  and  it  is 
quite  as  necessary  to  play  as  it  is  to  work.  In  the 
course  of  his  development,  the  normal  child  does  both; 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  problem  of  directing  the 
child's  development  consists  of  building  a  bridge 
between  play  and  work  that  will  make  both  types  of 
activity  readily  accessible  at  all  stages. 

Tools  and  toys  may  be  considered  as  the  material 
instruments  through  which  human  beings  express 
themselves  and  impress  their  environment.  The  tran- 
sition from  the  plaything  to  the  work-thing  is  very 
elusive;  and  it  is  of  no  importance  whatever  —  except 
for  the  fact  that  in  many  cases  the  transition  is  never 
made.  The  prime  function  of  the  toy  is  related  to  the 
form  which  play  takes  at  any  given  time.  In  infancy, 
when  satisfaction  is  derived  from  simple  sensations, 
the  toys  are  things  to  see,  to  hear,  to  touch,  to  bite, 
and  so  on.  Here,  then,  a  spoon  serves  admirably, 
for  it  is  a  handful  to  grasp,  shiny  to  catch  the  eye, 
hard  enough  to  make  a  noise  against  the  side  of  the 
crib,  and  small  enough  to  put  into  the  mouth.  The 
child  gets  from  such  a  'Hoy"  an  abundance  of  muscular 
and  sensory  exercise,  it  gives  him  something  to  do  — 
and  that  is  the  essential  of  the  toy  as  it  is  of  the  tool. 

Although  work  is  sometimes  distinguished  from 
play  in  that  the  latter  yields  satisfaction  through  the 
activity  itself,  whereas  the  former  yields  satisfaction 

65 


66  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

through  the  result  of  the  activity,  the  separation  is 
not  in  fact  so  sharp.  The  child  very  early  comes  to  be 
interested  in  the  results  of  his  activity.  While  he 
spends  the  first  three  years  in  merely  getting  acquainted 
with  the  world  around  him,  a  part  of  this  acquaintance 
consists  in  knowing  what  changes  can  be  produced  on 
the  materials  at  hand.  So  that  although  he  may 
begin  by  touching  and  tasting,  etc.,  he  continues  by 
breaking  or  tearing,  crushing  or  bending.  This  means 
that  he  must  get  material  for  making.  The  arranging 
and  rearranging  of  blocks  or  spools,  the  rolling  or 
throwing  of  a  ball,  the  blowing  of  a  whistle,  gradually 
give  way  to  paper  and  shears  and  paste,  to  clay  and 
crayon  and  needle. 

When  the  child's  imagination  begins  to  invest  the 
objects  around  him  with  personality,  or  with  traits 
remembered  and  transferred  from  other  things,  the 
toy  is  in  the  nature  of  a  lay  figure  upon  which  he  can 
hang  garments  suitable  for  all  occasions.  The  doll 
then  is  merely  a  material  symbol,  and  need  not  have 
the  detail  and  finish  that  a  more  critical  adult  would 
demand.  A  stick  will  serve  as  a  hobby  horse,  a  box 
drawn  by  a  string  is  enough  of  a  wagon. 

When  critical  observation  and  command  over  the 
muscles  have  progressed  far  enough,  the  child's  interest 
in  things  he  wants  and  his  interest  in  doing  may  be 
combined  in  the  project  of  making  his  own  toys.  From 
this  it  is  but  a  short  step  to  work  —  that  is,  activity 
that  is  interesting  not  in  itself  but  because  of  the  results 
it  yields. 

The  precise  form  which  work  and  play  take  will 
depend,  in  a  given  stage  of  development,  upon  the 


TOYS  AND  TOOLS  67 

materials  and  activities  that  characterize  the  sur- 
roundings. On  a  farm  the  child  will  have  toy  animals 
and  will  play  at  gardening  or  dairying;  in  the  city  he 
will  have  a  toy  fire  engine  and  play  at  shopping  or 
parades. 

The  selection  of  toys  must,  therefore,  be  guided  not 
only  by  the  age  of  the  child,  but  by  the  stimuli  and 
suggestions  that  are  likely  to  have  meaning.  And 
tools  or  work-things  must,  in  the  same  way,  be  not 
only  usable,  but  related  to  the  things  that  the  child  will 
want  to  do. 

OUTLINE 

1.  ACTIVITY   ESSENTIAL   TO    GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT 

a.  Spontaneous  or  "play"  activity 

b.  Directed  or  "work"  activity 

(1)  Direction  of  activity  by  external  compulsion 

(2)  Direction  by  interest  or  acceptance 

2.  GRADED  INTERESTS  AND  CORRESPONDING  PLAYTHINGS 

a.  First  Three  Years 
Sensory  experience 
Getting  acquainted  with  the  world 
Acquirement  of  control  of  larger  muscles 

(1)  Rattle,  ball,  ring 

(2)  Striking,  biting,  whistle 

(3)  Spools,  clothespins 

(4)  Pull  by  string 

(5)  Fill  and  empty 

(6)  Lift  and  carry 

(7)  Dress  and  undress  (doll) 

(8)  Paper  and  paste 

(9)  Blocks 
(10)  Clay 


68  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

b.  To  Six  Years 
Imitation 
Motion 
Rhythm 

(1)  Dolls,  animals 

(2)  Household  tools,  to  help  in  reaj  work 

(3)  Seesaw,  swing,  rocking-horse 

(4)  Gocart,  kiddy-car,  hobby-horse,  wheelbarrow 

(5)  Cart,  train,  boat,  fire  engine,  windmill 

(6)  Sand,  water,  measuring 

(7)  Making  own  toys,  put  together  blocks,  etc. 

(8)  Hammer  and  nails 

(9)  Toy  furniture,  tea  set,  kitchen  set,  play  hostess 

(10)  Weaving,  raffia,  beads,  basketry,  knitting 

(11)  Crayon,  paint,  stencils 

C.  To  Ten  Years  (from  activity  for  its  own  sake  and  con- 
trol of  movements,  to  control  of  environment) 
Rivalry 

Sensitiveness  to  failure 
Collecting 
Constructing 

(1)  Plants  to  grow;  garden 

(2)  Pets  to  care  for;  aquarium 

(3)  Scouting;  Indians;  hunting 

(4)  Policeman,  letter-carrier,  expressman,  post- 

office 

(5)  Robinhood;  pioneers 

(6)  Dramatization;  costumes  and  material  for 

making  costumes;  scenery,  etc. 

(7)  Bow  and  arrow,  boxing,  sled,  skating 

(8)  Athletic  games 

(9)  Doll 

d.  Ten  to  Twelve  Years 

Transition  to  adolescence 

Concrete  results  of  activity  desired  —  something  to 

show  for  effort 
Recognition  and  approval 

(1)  Elaboration  of  skills  initiated  in  earlier  period 

(2)  Advance  in  handicrafts 

(3)  Printing  press,  art  materials,  sewing,  etc. 

(4)  Substantial  tools  and  working  space 


TOYS  AND  TOOLS  69 

e.  Thirteen  to  Fifteen  Years 

Play  of  child  becomes  replaced  by  more  systematic 
pursuit  of  hobby 

(1)  Materials  for  experimentation 

(2)  Tools  and  materials  for  constructive  arts  and 

crafts 

(3)  Musical  instruments 

(4)  Athletic  equipment 

3.      CLASSIFICATION   OF  TOYS 

a.  In  Relation  to  Child's  Activity 

(1)  Do  nothing 

(2)  Look  on 

(3)  Do  with 

b.  As  to  Types  of  Activity 

(1)  Sensory  appeal 

(2)  Manipulation 

(3)  Construction 

(4)  Operation 

(5)  Imitation  of  activities  of  others;  participation 

in  service  and  activities 

(6)  Games 

(7)  Sports  and  athletics 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Beard,  L.  and  A.  —  What  a  Girl  Can  Make  and  Do 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  A  Montessori  Mother: 

Chap.  IV,  "Something  about  the  Apparatus  and 
about  the  Theory  Underlying  It"; 

Chap.  V,  "Description  of  the  Rest  of  the  Apparatus 
and  the  Method  for  Writing  and  Reading"; 

Chap.  VI,  "Some  General  Remarks  about  the 
Montessori  Apparatus  in  the  American  Home"; 

Chap.  VII,  "The  Possibility  of  American  Adapta- 
tions of,  or  Additions  to,  the  Montessori  Appa- 
ratus" 


70  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Hickman,  E,  A.  —  Soft  Toys  and  How  to  Make  Them 

Johnson,  G.  E.  —  Education  by  Plays  and  Games: 
Chap.  II,  "Play  in  Education" 

Sarg,  Tony  —  The  Tony  Sarg  Marionette  Book 

White,  Mary  —  The  Child's  Rainy  Day  Book 

Non-Technical 

Adams,  Morley  —  Toy  Making  in  the  Home 

Johnson,  G.  F.  —  Toys  and  Toy  Making 

Koch,  Fritz  —  Paper  Toys  and  How  to  Make  Them 

Miller,  Charles  M.  —  Kitecraft 

SiES,  A.  C.  —  Spontaneous  and  Supervised  Play  in  Childhood: 
Chap.  II,  'Tlay  and  Work" 

Technical 

Moore,  H.  W.  —  Manual  Training  Toys 

Polkinhorne,  R.    and    M.  —  Toy  Making  in  School  and 
Home 

Sloane,  Thomas  0.  —  Electric  Toy  Making  for  Amateurs 

Thatcher,  E.  —  Making  Tin-Can  Toys 


17.     LANGUAGE  AND  SPEECH  DEVELOPMENT 

The  infant  responds  to  various  stimuli  that  reach  his 
senses  through  various  meaningless  jerks  and  contor- 
tions, and  through  cries  and  gurgles.  These  sounds, 
movements,  and  contortions  gradually  take  on  a 
definite  form,  influenced  by  the  sounds  and  gestures 
that  come  to  him  and  that  he  soon  recognizes  —  that 
is,  associates  with  certain  feehngs  of  pleasure,  relief, 
excitation,  and  so  on.  By  repeating  the  sounds,  or  as 
much  of  them  as  he  can,  he  acquires  ''language." 

Since  language,  both  as  performance  and  as  meaning, 
is  so  closely  dependent  upon  the  child's  experience,  it  is 
wise  to  avoid  the  use  of  cunning  mispronunciations 
and  distortions  of  the  language  we  wish  the  child  to 
acquire;  it  is  disconcerting  and  misleading  to  abuse 
the  words  by  giving  them  specialized,  arbitrary,  or 
remote  meanings.  On  the  other  hand,  telling  simple 
stories  in  words  that  the  child  can  understand,  and 
reading  well  written  stories  within  the  child's  compre- 
hension, will  go  far  to  establish  a  useful  vocabulary 
and  to  develop  the  concepts  for  which  the  words  serve 
as  symbols. 

The  enrichment  of  the  child's  vocabulary  and  of  his 
mental  content  constitute  so  much  of  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  child,  that  there  should  be  constant 
Unking  up  of  his  experience  and  his  thought  with  his 
language.  The  language  should  not  be  forced,  but 
should  follow  quickly  upon  experience ;  there  should  be 

71 


72  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

impression  before  expression,  but  expression  should  not 
be  inhibited  or  unduly  delayed.  In  teaching  reading 
and  writing  the  printed  page  or  the  process  of  making 
conventional  marks  must  not  be  treated  as  the  immedi- 
ate object  of  interest.  It  is  more  effective  to  arouse  the 
child's  curiosity  as  to  the  story  which  the  strange 
marks  have  to  tell,  or  his  desire  to  tell  others  what  he 
has  on  his  mind. 

Most  speech  defects  that  are  not  the  direct  result  of 
imitation  are  due  either  to  defective  breathing  and 
vocalization,  or  to  some  structural  irregularity.  In  the 
former  case,  the  cause  is  frequently  found  to  be  in  an 
emotional  state  brought  on  through  fear  or  repression. 
In  any  case,  experts  should  be  consulted. 

OUTLINE 

1.  GROWTH    OF   LANGUAGE    IN    INFANCY 

a.  Earhest  vocalizations  inarticulate 

b.  Random  movements  and  gestures 

c.  Recognition  of  words  before  attempted  utterance 

d.  From  cries  and  single  words  to  sentences  in  three  years 

e.  Language  acquired  through  imitation;   "Baby  talk" 

2.  TRAINING    IN    LANGUAGE 

a.  Importance  of  correct  pronunciation  as  model 

b.  Vocabulary  dependent  on  environment 

c.  Reading  aloud  as  source  of  language 

d.  Value  of  having  child  repeat  stories  read  or  told 

3.  GROWTH   OF   CONCEPTS 

a.  Expansion  of  the  content  of  words 

b.  Dependence  upon  range  of  experience 

c.  Extension  of  experience  through  pictures,  reading,  etc. 

d.  Value  of  discussion  in  development  of  concepts 


LANGUAGE  AND  SPEECH  DEVELOPMENT         73 

4.  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE 

a.  Sound  basis  in  spoken  language 

b.  Interest  in  message  before  interest  in  medium 

c.  Pictures  as  language 

5.  PROBLEMS  IN  LATER  LANGUAGE  DEVELOPMENT 

a.  Experience  before  expression 

b.  Content  emphasized  before  form 

c.  Spelling  to  be  mastered  early 

d.  Grammar  better  studied  later  (after  12  years) 

6.  SPEECH  defects;  causes  and  treatment 

a.  Stammering 

b.  Stuttering 

c.  Lisping 

d.  Foreign  and  provincial  accents 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Blanton,  M.  and  S.  —  Speech  Training  for  Children: 
Chap.  I,  "The  Speech  Medium"; 
Chap.  II,  "Speech  Training  and  General  Educa- 
tion"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "The  Mechanisms  of  Speech"; 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Coordinations"; 
Chap.  V,  "The  Plastic  Period"; 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Developing  Speech  Needs"; 
Chap.  VII,  "Unhealthy  Types  of  Speech  Reaction" 
Montessori,  Maria  —  The  Montessori  Method: 
Chap.  XVIII,  "Language  in  Childhood" 

Non-Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

Second  Series,  "How  Words  Get  Content" 

NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood:  46- 
48,  251-257,  306-308 


74  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Sandiford,  p.  —  The  Mental  and  Physical  Life  of  School 
Children: 
Chap.  XIX,  "Development  of  Language  in  Chil-. 
dren" 

Waddle,  C.  W.  —  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology: 

Chap.  VU,  "The  Linguistic  Development  of  Chil-' 
dren" 

Technical 

CoNRADi,  Edward  —  Speech  Development  in  the  Child: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XI,  328-380,  1904 

King,  Irving  —  The  Social  Aspects  of  Mental  Development: 
329-333,  345-351 

Trettien,  a.  W.  —  Psychology  of  the  Language  Interest  of 
Children: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XI,  113-177,  1904 

Watson,  J.  B.  —  Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Be- 
haviorist: 
Chap.  IX,  "The  Genesis  and  Retention  of  Explicit 
and  Implicit  Language  Habits " 


18.    FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 

Aside  from  the  traditional  overvaluation  of  foreign 
language  as  a  mark  of  culture,  or  as  an  adjunct  to  leisure 
pursuits,  there  is  a  substantial  worth  in  the  mastery  of 
such  languages  both  for  purposes  of  personal  power  and 
satisfaction,  and  for  purposes  of  commercial  or  other 
vocational  application. 

The  acquisition  of  a  foreign  language  during  child- 
hood, along  with  the  mother  tongue,  has  been  shown 
to  carry  certain  disadvantages,  such  as  the  mixing  of 
idioms,  the  impurity  of  accent,  etc.,  as  well  as  to  have 
the  theoretical  disadvantages  of  obstructing  complete 
mastery  of  the  mother  tongue.  These  disadvantages, 
which  are  to  a  degree  dependent  upon  unsuitable 
teachers  or  improper  methods,  are  nevertheless  out- 
weighed by  the  advantage  of  greater  facility  of  acquiring 
two  or  more  languages  by  the  "natural"  method  of 
imitation  and  use  during  the  early  years.  The  chief 
disadvantage  of  learning  foreign  languages  through 
tutors  or  governesses  at  this  time  lies  in  the  enforced 
separation  of  the  child  from  his  companions,  both 
physically  during  the  hours  of  instruction,  and  mentally 
through  the  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  common 
experience  and  intercommunication. 

The  systematic  teaching  of  a  foreign  language  to 
children  who  are  already  established  in  one  language 
tends  to  follow  as  closely  as  possible  the  natural 
method,  even  in  the  higher  grades  and  in  the  high 
schools. 

76 


76  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1.  DESIRABILITY  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGE 

a.  Broadens  sympathies 

b.  Makes  accessible  thought  and  life  of  other  peoples 

c.  Enhances  vocational  equipment 

(1)  Commercial 

(2)  Professional 

d.  Enriches  appreciation  of  own  language 

2.  ADVANTAGES  OF  LEARNING  FOREIGN  LANGUAGE  EARLY 

a.  Comes  most  easily  as  imitation; 

Two  or  three  languages  apparently  learned  as  easily 
as  one 

b.  Child's  tongue  more  flexible; 

Pronunciation  becomes  more  difficult  as  child  gets 
older 

3.  DISADVANTAGES   OF  LEARNING   EARLY 

a.  Distracts  time  and  energy  from  mother  tongue 

b.  Decreases  sensitiveness  to  words  and  sentence  struc- 

ture 

c.  Leads  to  confusion  of  words  and  idioms 

d.  Leaves  traces  of  interfering  thought  forms 

e.  Leaves  traces  of  impure  accents 

4.  METHODS   FOR    OLDER   CHILDREN 

a.  Replacement  of  formal  methods 

b.  Ascendancy  of  direct  methods 

c.  Appeal  to  interest 

d.  Use  of  hearing  first,  then  sight 

e.  Encouragement  of  pupil  through  more  rapid  acquisi- 

tion of  usable  fragments  of  language 

f .  Available  at  all  ages 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Berle,  a.  a.  —  The  School  in  the  Home:  23-49 
Henderson,  C.  Hanford  —  What  Is  It  to  he  Educated? 

225-254,  348-355 
Mill,  J.  Stuart  —  Autobiography:  1-36 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  77 

Non-Technical 

Ballard,  A.  W.  —  The  Direct  Method  Applied  to  American 
Schools: 
Educational  Review,  LI,  447-456,  May,  1916 

Calvin,  T.  —  Good  and  Bad  Reasons  for  Studying  Modern 
Languages  in  School: 
The  Modern  Language  Journal,  V,  October,  1920 

Handschin,  C.  H.  —  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in 
the  United  States: 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1913, 
No.  3,   94-100  (Contains  excellent   bibliography 
for  more  detailed  study) 

Kraus,  C.  a.  —  Why  the  Direct  Method  of  Teaching  a  Foreign 
Language: 
Educational  Review,  LI,  254-267,  1916 

Laurie,  S.  S.  —  Lectures  on  Langu/ige  and  Linguistic  Methods 

Starch,  D.  —  Experimental  Data  on  the  Value  of  Studying 
Modern  Languages: 
School  Review,  XXIII,  697-703,  1915 

ZiCK,  H.  —  Teaching  Modern  Languages  in  European  Sec- 
ondary Schools: 
Educational  Review,  LI,  488-510,  1916 

Technical 

Ellison,  L.  —  Children's  Capacity  for  Abstract  Thought  as 
Shown  by  Their  Use  of  Language  in  the  Definition 
of  Abstract  Terms: 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  XIX,  253-260, 1908 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Some  Psychological  Aspects  of  Teaching 
Modern  Languages: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXI,  256-263,  1914 


19.     MANNERS 

No  problem  in  child  training  better  illustrates  the 
difficulties  arising  from  a  separation  of  form  and  sub- 
stance, than  does  the  teaching  of  manners.  The  out- 
ward conformity  to  conventionalized  usage,  or  its 
absence,  is  obvious  to  all ;  the  feelings  of  considerateness 
or  kindliness  which  these  manners  ostensibly  manifest 
may  or  may  not  be  present. 

Good  manners  are  important  just  to  the  extent 
that  they  facilitate  human  intercourse,  and  reduce 
friction,  misunderstanding  and  ill-feeling.  They 
cease  to  be  important  when  they  degenerate  into  ex- 
pensive manifestations  of  class  distinctions,  or  into 
symbols  of  social  advantage  or  exclusiveness.  In 
other  words,  manners  are  important  as  standard 
practice  to  enable  people  to  carry  on;  they  are  worse 
than  useless  if  they  are  worn  as  ornaments. 

If  these  assumptions  are  sound,  the  first  considera- 
tion should  be  to  cultivate  in  children  kindly  feelings, 
sympathy,  considerateness,  and  regard  for  the  rights 
and  privileges  and  feelings  of  others.  These  results, 
however,  are  not  to  be  accomplished  merely,  or  even 
chiefly,  by  means  of  precepts  or  admonitions;  they  are 
the  results  primarily  of  the  child's  imitation  of  the  acts 
manifesting  such  feelings,  and  of  attitudes  observable 
in  the  conduct  of  their  surrounding  elders.  If  we  are 
not  kind  to  those  about  us,  including  the  child,  no 
amount  of  exhortation  to  kindness  will  do  the  trick;  no 

78 


MANNERS  79 

artificial  smiles  and  courtesies  will  do  it.  In  the  worst 
of  surroundings  people  will  evolve  some  sort  of  manners, 
by  precisely  those  methods  which  the  race  has  used  in 
the  long  course  of  time;  we  want  our  children  to  profit 
as  far  as  may  be  from  the  accumulated  experience  of 
the  past,  in  manners  as  in  other  matters.  We  must 
therefore  use  all  the  legitimate  educational  devices  for 
getting  early  and  surely  what  would  otherwise  be 
uncertainly  and  incompletely  accomplished  in  a  lifetime. 

This  involves,  then,  in  the  second  place,  in  addition 
to  the  favorable  environment  which  carries  the  outward 
and  visible  signs  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace,  a 
varying  amount  of  instruction  in  the  way  of  occasion- 
ally calling  to  the  child's  attention  what  he  might 
otherwise  overlook  or  disregard.  But  the  emphasis 
should  be  upon  the  inward  meaning  at  least  as  much  as 
upon  the  outward  form;  we  do  thus  and  so  not  because 
it  is  ''considered  proper,"  or  because  it  is  being  done 
in  "good  society,"  but  because  thus  do  we  help,  or 
arouse  good  feeling,  or  avoid  irritation,  and  so  on. 

As  in  other  teaching,  results  are  proportional  to  the 
child's  interest  and  good  will,  rather  than  to  the 
amount  of  drill  or  the  number  and  severity  of  penalties 
for  failure. 

Much  of  the  manners  of  each  generation  of  children 
is  produced  outside  the  home  and  is  beyond  the  control 
of  parents.  The  pictures  he  sees,  the  conversation  he 
overhears,  his  reading,  his  companions,  casual  com- 
ments, a  ghmpse  of  reahty,  all  produce  their  effect. 
Moreover,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  symbohsm  of 
every  generation  will  become  to  a  degree  meaningless 
to  the  next,  and  be  replaced  by  new  forms.    In  so  far  as 


80  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

manners  represent  morals,  we  must  demand  only  that 
our  children's  manners  be  genuine,  and  we  must  strive 
to  make  their  morals  sound,  leaving  room  in  our  teach- 
ings for  the  new  ways  of  a  new  day. 

OUTLINE 

1.  ASPECTS  OF  MANNERS 

a.  Conventional  conduct 

b.  Manifestation  of  civil  relations 

c.  Symbol  of  "good  breeding" 

2.  IMPORTANCE    OF   MANNERS 

a.  Facilitate  human  intercourse  —  standard  practice 

b.  Reflect  upon  attitudes 

(1)  Considerateness 

(2)  Kindliness 

(3)  Regard 

(4)  Fairness 

c.  Develop  poise,  ease  of  bearing 

3.  PSYCHOLOGICAL   FACTORS 

a.  Unconscious  imitation 

b.  Influence  of  approval  or  disapproval 

c.  Pleasurable  consequences  —  trial  and  error 

d.  Conscious  ideals 

e.  Sex  differences 

4.  PRACTICAL   CONSIDERATIONS 

a.  Importance  of  living  models 

(1)  Conversation 

(2)  Deference  to  elders  and  strangers 

(3)  Treatment  of  help,  tradesmen,  functionaries, 

etc. 

(4)  Treatment  of  equals  and  of  children 

b.  Incidental  instruction  and  guidance 

c.  Parties  and  games  as  occasions  for  practice 

d.  Stories  and  other  reading 

e.  The  theater  and  movies  as  school  of  manners 

f .  The  school's  share  in  formation  of  manners 

g.  Preserving  spontaneity  and  genuineness  of  children 
h.  Leaving  room  for  change 


MANNERS  81 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

BiRNEY,  Mrs.  Theodore  —  Childhood: 
Chap.  XIII,  "On  Manners" 

Emerson,  Ralph  W.  —  Essay  on  Behavior 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:   285-288 

Hall,  F.  M.  —  Boys,  Girls,  Manners: 
Chap.  II,  "HospitaUty" 

Henderson,  C.  H.  —  What  is  It  to  be  Educated?    102-103, 
144-147 

James,  W.  —  Talks  to  Teachers: 

Chap.  IV,  "Education  and  Behavior"; 
Chap.  VI,  "Native  Reactions  and  Acquired  Reac- 
tions" 

Lutes,  D.  T.  —  Child,  Home,  and  School:  Chap.  XIII 

O'Shea,    M.    V.  —  Everyday  Problems  in   Child   Training: 
240-244 

Sneath  and  Hodges  —  Moral  Training  in  School  and  Home: 
80-81 

Non-Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,  cmd 
Hygiene:  22,  312 

KiRKPATRicK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  VIII,  "The  Development  of  the  Racial  In- 
stinct," 186-187 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education:  374-378 

O'Shea,  M.  V.  —  Social  Development  and  Education:  136-143 


20.    THE  USE  OF  MONEY 

Money  plays  an  important  role  in  modern  life. 
Children  should  have  experience  with  it  so  that  they 
may  learn  to  handle  it  wisely.  With  the  control  of 
money  goes  responsibility  for  its  proper  use.  Children 
may  receive  payment  for  rendering  useful  service,  but 
not  for  doing  personal  favors,  nor  for  meeting  their 
recognized  obligations. 

Allowances  are  neither  favors  nor  payments;  money 
is  a  necessary  part  of  the  child's  daily  adjustment,  in 
the  same  way  as  is  clothing  or  language.  Allowances 
are  furthermore  allotments  of  the  family  income,  as 
instruments  of  education  in  the  use  of  money. 

The  child  should  have  experience  in  earning  money 
as  well  as  in  spending  it;  and  he  should  acquire  a  due 
appreciation  of  its  significance  and  value  in  human 
relations,  but  the  danger  of  making  money-getting  the 
main  end  of  all  effort  must  be  guarded  against. 

The  child  derives  a  certain  satisfaction  from  giving, 
and  generous  impulses  to  aid  others  should  be  en- 
couraged. To  give  to  charities  in  the  name  of  the 
child  gives  him  illegitimate  satisfactions,  since  such 
giving  involves  no  sacrifice  on  his  part  and  no  real 
sharing  or  participation.  Children  must  learn  the 
meaning  of  poverty  and  the  more  effective  means  for 
dealing  therewith. 


82 


THE   USE   OF   MONEY  83 

OUTLINE 
L      LEARNING   THE    VALUE    OF   MONEY 

a.  The  importance  of  money  in  modern  life 

b.  Child  learns  through  experience  and  example 

c.  Progressive  experience  through  buying  and  spending 

Buying  own  clothes,  etc. 

d.  Learning  cost  of  upkeep,  etc. 

Keeping  accounts,  use  of  check  book 

2.  ALLOWANCES 

a.  At  what  age?    Amounts? 

b.  Control  of  money  received  by  child 

c.  Deductions  and  fines  for  damage,  negligence,  etc. 

d.  Should  allowances  be  withheld  as  a  means  of  disci- 

pline? 

3.  EARNING   MONEY 

a.  Paying  for  home  services 

b.  What  kind  of  work  may  be  paid  for? 

(1)  Favors  vs.  purchasable  services 

(2)  Duties  vs.  purchasable  services 

c.  Opportunities  for  earning;   business  enterprise 

(1)  Boys  and  girls 

(2)  City  and  country 

d.  Control  of  money  earned 

e.  Growth  of  family  allegiance  through  cooperation  in 

financial  projects 

f.  Money  "making"  necessary  but  not  an  end  of  life 

(See  outHne   "Acquisitiveness"   on  the  property 
sense) 

4.  SAVING 

a.  Saving  not  an  end  in  itself 

(1)  Inherent  individual  tendencies  toward  saving 

or  spending 

(2)  Training  of  interest  in  a  remote  objective 

b.  Saving  should  be  for  specific  purposes 

c.  Teaching  thrift  principles  and  habits 

Money  is  nice  to  have  —  but  what  for? 


84  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

5.  ALMSGIVING 

a.  Children's  interest  expands  to  sympathy  with  others 

b.  Children's  experiences  with  the  needs  of  others 

c.  Charitable  organizations  and  long-distance  giving 

Dependent  poor 

d.  Giving  and  sharing 

6.  IDEAL   ATTITUDE 

Balanced  appreciation  of  money  as  a  means  toward 
justifiable  ends 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
EwALD,  C.  —  My  Little  Boy:   43-51,  51-64 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  — Sons  and  Daughter^:   107,  310-318 

Non-Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

"Ought  Children  to   be   Paid   for   Domestic  Ser- 
vice?"   (B.  Dismorr),  Second  Series,  62-70 
"Children's  Sense  of  .Money"  (Anna  Kohler),  First 
Series,  323-331 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Use  of  Money 

Technical 

Monroe,  W.  S.  —  The  Money  Sense  of  Children: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  152-158 


21.    ACQUISITIVENESS 

The  child  begins  at  about  three  years  to  gather  to 
himself  whatever  he  lays  hands  upon.  Girls  and  boys 
early  acquire  the  desire  to  enlarge  their  accumulation, 
and  interest  in  gifts  is  largely  related  to  this  desire. 
Later  they  find  that  things  are  to  be  had  as  rewards  of 
various  kinds  of  merit.  Still  later  they  sally  forth  to 
get  by  whatever  means  is  in  their  power,  and  in  many 
cases  the  interest  leads  to  more  or  less  systematic 
barter,  especially  with  boys;  and  not  infrequently  to 
stealing. 

There  is  no  discrimination  to  begin  with;  gradually 
the  collection  becomes  speciaUzed  under  various 
influences  —  what  there  is  to  be  had,  the  suggestions 
in  the  conversation  or  activities  of  elders,  curiosity 
(especially  concerning  objects  of  nature),  and  senti- 
mental associations,  such  as  souvenirs  of  parties, 
programs,  posters,  and  so  on. 

The  interest  in  collecting  is  stimulated  by  the 
desire  to  enlarge  in  comparison  with  others  (rivalry), 
by  the  approval  and  admiration  that  can  be  drawn 
forth,  and  by  the  satisfaction  of  attaining  a  high 
standard.  On  the  subjective  side,  it  is  influenced  by 
the  satisfaction  of  overcoming  various  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  attaining  the  standard  (prowess).  The 
interests  are  likely  to  change  as  the  child  grows  in 
esthetic  discrimination,  as  he  acquires  new  interests 
out  of  his  reading  or  schooling  or  new  acquaintances, 

85 


86  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

and   as  he  becomes  more  exacting  in   systems   and 
classifications. 

Although  the  child's  collecting  may  end  in  a  vain 
"hobby"  or  in  a  garretful  of  junk,  it  is  capable  of 
being  guided  into  an  instrument  of  genuine  culture. 
The  collecting  interest  gives  for  the  time  being  a  basis 
for  unifying  studies  and  other  activities,  leads  to  more 
concentration  and  greater  exertion.  Even  the  collec- 
tion of  "useless"  things  furnishes  opportunity  for 
acquiring  special  knowledge,  and  at  least  an  apprecia- 
tion of  expertness  and  respect  for  authority  founded  on 
expertness.  It  leads  to  excursions  into  remoter  corners 
of  the  world  of  people  and  things  and  ideas. 

The  child  should  be  encouraged  to  work  his  interest 
intensively;  and  the  shifting  to  new  interests  with  the 
advancing  years  should  not  be  disparaged.  The 
interests  of  the  child  manifested  in  his  collecting  should 
not  be  taken  too  seriously  as  indicating  a  natural 
"bent "  or  a  special  vocational  capacity.  In  most  cases 
it  is  likely  to  indicate  merely  a  stage  of  development, 
or  an  incidental  influence  of  the  environment.  Instead 
of  seizing  upon  such  an  interest  that  happens  to  appeal 
to  elders  as  the  final  index  of  a  future  career,  we  should 
deplore  rather  an  early  setthng  down  to  a  specialty 
while  there  is  the  possibiUty  for  advance  to  a  higher 
level. 

Collecting,  unguided  and  uncontrolled,  has  its 
dangers.  Pursued  too  intently  it  leads  to  loss  of  per- 
spective, and  even  to  ruthlessness,  as  in  the  collecting 
of  birds'  nests,  or  in  the  collecting  of  "souvenirs"  by 
college  boys  and  girls.  It  may  lead  to  the  accumula- 
tion of  worthless  junk,  and  to  the  withholding  from  use 


ACQUISITIVENESS  87 

by  others  of  materials  that  might  be  useful.  Old 
clothes,  magazines,  and  books  are  junk  in  one  house;  in 
another  they  might  be  truly  useful  and  might  better  be 
put  to  work  wherever  possible.  But  we  also  dislike  to 
throw  away  broken  bric-a-brac  and  old  furniture  and 
old  letters  that  are  of  no  earthly  use  to  anyone.  There 
is  the  further  danger  of  establishing  false  standards  of 
value  through  the  artificial  emphasis  upon  rarities; 
snobbishness  and  pedantry  and  specious  reput  ability 
feed  upon  the  "pretentious  rubbish"  of  the  collector. 
Whether  as  an  avocation  to  supplement  and  enrich  the 
everyday  activities,  or  as  the  chief  interest  in  life, 
collecting  in  some  form  or  other  serves  to  give  color  and 
intensity  to  the  later  years. 

The  things  the  child  acquires,  whether  in  the  early 
unconscious  stage,  or  in  the  later  deliberate,  purposeful 
and  systematic  stage,  are  valued  as  expansions  of  the 
personality;  and  property  has  its  true  significance 
just  in  so  far  as  it  adds  to  spiritual  stature.  There  is 
thus  grave  danger  in  the  development  of  property 
interests  on  lower  levels.  Children  should  be  en- 
couraged to  explore,  to  concentrate,  and  to  clear  the 
deck  for  what  has  been  selected  as  worth  while.  But 
always  explore  further,  and  clear  away  what  has  been 
rejected,  or  what  is  unused.  Try  out  everything,  but 
not  all  at  one  time.  The  unused  and  the  duplicate 
should  make  way  for  what  is  of  relatively  lasting 
interest.  The  collection  may  be  the  nucleus  of  a 
museum  or  of  a  competence;  it  may  also  be  the  begin- 
ning of  a  barbarous  junk  heap,  or  of  miserliness. 

The  child's  attitude  toward  the  property  of  others 
is    a   gradual    development    from   his   exclusive    and 


88  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

jealous  interest  in  his  own.  It  is  possible  in  the  early 
years  to  teach  a  child  to  consider  the  rights  of  others, 
and  certainly  to  refrain  from  abusing  other  people's 
belongings.  Later  he  can  transfer  to  other  people  the 
feehngs  he  has  about  his  own  things,  and  eventually 
come  to  regard  the  ''rights"  of  property  in  the  abstract, 
not  as  distinguished  from  the  rights  of  people,  but  as 
a  phase  of  human  rights. 

OUTLINE 

1.  NATURE    AND   DEVELOPMENT 

a.  Tendency  to  gather  indiscriminately  begins  at  about 

three  years 

b.  As  pronounced  in  girls  as  in  boys ;  may  take  different 

forms 

c.  Gradually  specialized  under  external  influences 

(1)  Nature  of  available  objects 
/  (2)  Fashions  —  imitation  and  suggestion 

(3)  Curiosity 

(4)  Sentiment 

d.  Stimulated  by  rivalry 

(1)  Admiration  and  approval 

(2)  Desire  to  achieve;  exploit 

e.  Modified  by  development  of  esthetic  discrimination 

or  taste,  and  of  intellectual  powers 

(1)  Development  of  interest  in  system 

(2)  Changing  interests  and  sentiments 

2.  FORMS 

a.  Sources 

(1)  Begins  with  random  gathering  in  of  miscellane- 

ous articles 

(2)  Grows  with  reliance  upon  gifts 

(3)  Shifts  to  seeking  rewards  of  "merit" 

(4)  Becomes  desire  to  get  as  result  of  exertion 

'^  (5)  Usually  ends  in  pursuit,  in  form  of  trade  or 

barter 


ACQUISITIVENESS  89 

b.  Incidence 

(1)  Odds  and  ends 

(2)  Bits  of  colored  material  —  ribbons,  glass,  stone 

(3)  Pictures,  coins,  stamps 

(4)  Nature  objects  —  insects,   minerals,  feathers, 

flowers 

(5)  Books,    autographs,    portraits,    historic    me- 

mentoes 

(6)  Trophies,  souvenirs 

(7)  Rarities,  antiques,  objects  of  vertu,  the  unique 

(8)  An  element  in  "business  interest" 

BENEFITS 

a.  Develops  unifying  interests  and  purposes,  leading  to 

concentration  of  effort 

b.  Gives  stimulus  to  planning  and  exertion 

c.  Develops  special  knowledge,  relative  expertness  and 

discrimination,  ideas  of  order  and  classification 

d.  Leads  to  wider  exploration  into  world  of  people  and 

things 

e.  Furnishes  basis  of  consideration  for  the  property 

rights  of  others 

f.  Furnishes  suggestions  for  later  hobbies — "nature's 

antidote  against  future  boredom" 

DANGERS 

a.  Loss  of  perspective  through  overemphasis 

b.  Ruthlessness  through  overintensity 

c.  Accumulation  of  useless  junk 

d.  Relegation  to  idleness  of  useful  objects  and  materials 

e.  Forcing  of  artificial  interests  and  values,  development 

of  exclusiveness,  snobbishness,  or  pedantry  on 
basis  of  the  "pretentious  rubbish" 

f.  Enthusiast  may  become  a  bore 

CONTROL 

a.  Explore ;  the  child  should  be  encouraged  to  search  for 

new  fields 

b.  Concentrate;  the  child  should  be  encouraged  to  work 

his  immediate  interest  as  intensively  as  possible, 
with  regard  to  time  and  energy  and  other  de- 
mands 


90  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

c.  Advance;  do  not  attach  too  much  significance  to  the 

material  or  the  form  of  the  collection  at  any 
given  time 

d.  Clear  the  deck;    the  child  should  be  constantly  en- 

couraged to  get  rid  as  completely  as  may  be  of  the 
objects  he  is  no  longer  "collecting"  and  of  the 
"duplicates"  he  has  —  both  to  make  room  for  new 
things,  and  to  avoid  idleness  of  the  "useful" 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:   104-107 
HuBBELL,  L.  E.  —  The  Child  and  His  Room: 

The  House  Beautiful,  XLVII,  358-362,  April,  1920 
Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education:   289-293 
Thorndike,  E.  L. — Educational  Psychology;  Briefer  Course:  20 

Non-Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

" Children's  Collections  "  (Earl  Barnes),  First  Series, 

144-146 
"Children's  Plays"  (Genevra  Sisson),  First  Series, 

171-174 
Darwin,  Charles  —  Life  and  Letters:  1,  28,  31,  37,  38,  43 
KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:  205-207 
NoRswoRTHY    AND    Whitley  —  Psychology    of    Childhood: 

52-54,  299 
Waddle,  C.  W.  —  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology:  216-218 

Technical 

Hall  and  Smith  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education: 
"The  Collecting  Instinct"  (Caroline  Frear  Burk), 
205-240  (Reprinted  from  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
VII,  179-207,  1900) 


ACQUISITIVENESS  91 

"The  Psychology  of  Ownership"  (France  and 
KUne),  241-286  (Reprinted  from  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  VI,  421-470,  1899) 

King,  Ieving  —  Psychology  of  Child  Development:  179-180 

WiLTSE  AND  Hall  —  Children's  Collections: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  I,  234-237,  1893 


22.     INITIATIVE  AND  SPONTANEITY 

In  the  infant  we  may  observe  many  movements 
that  are  apparently  set  off  by  some  external  stimulus, 
and  others  that  seem  to  arise  from  something  happening 
within  the  child.  While  in  a  strict  sense  we  cannot 
conceive  of  activities  being  spontaneous,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish from  the  random  and  impulsive  movements 
those  that  appear  to  be  related  to  the  child's  interests. 
Where  there  is  an  element  of  choice,  of  prolonged 
attention,  of  absorption  to  the  disregard  of  stimulations 
that  would  ordinarily  ehcit  a  response,  we  have  an 
indication  of  something  related  to  the  individuaUty  of 
the  child.  Early  in  his  development,  however,  there 
begin  to  operate  influences  that  restrict  these  spon- 
taneous actions  and  interests,  and  interfere  with  them 
in  various  ways. 

The  child  is  obHged  to  confine  himself  to  lines  of 
conduct  that  are  either  approved  or  ignored  by  the 
more  powerful  personalities  of  his  environment.  Some 
of  the  things  he  is  incHned  to  do  are  solemnly  con- 
demned as  ''wrong,"  or  are  arbitrarily  forbidden. 
"  Don't "  comes  to  be  the  most  familiar  imperative;  and 
to  the  child  the  distinctions  between  what  is  permitted 
or  tolerated  and  what  is  forbidden,  are  very  vague  and 
meaningless. 

Yet  it  is  quite  necessary  that  the  primitive  freedom 
of  the  child  should  be  restrained.  Nothing  in  the 
nature  of  the  organisms  insures  that  the  spontaneous 

92 


INITIATIVE  AND  SPONTANEITY  93 

movements  shall  be  at  worst  harmless.  There  is  con- 
stant danger  of  coming  in  conflict  with  the  solid  realities 
and  injurious  forces  of  the  surroundings.  There  are 
stairs  that  permit  painful  falls,  there  are  hot  points 
and  surfaces  that  burn,  there  are  things  small  enough  to 
put  into  the  mouth  but  better  kept  out.  Moreover, 
there  are  other  people,  who  will  either  receive  considera- 
tion or  cause  trouble.  And  finally,  there  are  complex 
relations  between  human  beings  that  demand  the 
complete  repression  of  many  kinds  of  actions  that  are  in 
themselves  neither  good  nor  bad.  All  of  these  facts 
impose  the  necessity  for  the  ehmination  of  certain  types 
of  interests  and  activities ;  and  the  child  must  attain  to 
an  adjustment  to  these  facts  whether  he  retains  any 
spontaneity  or  not.  Unfortunately,  for  most  people 
there  is  retained  only  an  insignificant  area  of  free  action, 
or  one  that  interferes  substantially  with  their  happy 
relation  to  others. 

It  is  possible  to  attain  to  social  adjustment  and  at 
the  same  time  to  retain  a  considerable  amount  of  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  independence.  There  should  be 
provided  for  the  child,  from  the  earliest  days,  an  ample 
and  a  growing  opportunity  for  spontaneous  activity 
in  surroundings  that  are  not  only  safe,  but  stimulating. 
A  great  variety  of  material  for  playing  and  for  making, 
such  as  is  so  elaborately  systematized  in  the  kinder- 
garten, or  in  the  Montessori  school,  furnishes  this 
opportunity.  A  wide  range,  with  freedom  of  choice, 
encouragement  in  the  simple  efforts,  the  example  of 
older  people  trying  to  make  things,  to  make  up  a  song, 
to  tell  a  story,  to  draw  a  picture,  furnish  for  the  young 
child  the  stimulus  and  at  the  same  time  the  control  for 


94  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

spontaneity  and  initiative.  As  the  child  grows  older 
he  becomes  aware  of  the  relative  values  placed  by  his 
contemporaries  upon  strict  compliance  with  the  con- 
ventional, as  against  the  inventive  and  original.  The 
child  will  need  help  in  solving  problems,  in  selecting 
problems;  he  will  need  guidance  to  avoid  serious  blunders 
or  damage.  But  unnecessary  restraints  should  never 
be  imposed  on  the  theory  that  they  have  some  magical 
"disciplinary"  value;  nor  should  assistance  extend  to 
the  point  of  making  him  lean  too  heavily  upon  others. 
Not  every  child  is  a  genius,  but  every  normal  child 
should  have  the  opportunity  to  make  the  most  of 
himself,  especially  on  the  side  of  his  distinctive  qualities. 
This  means  that  we  must  cultivate  ideals  that  make  for 
an  honest  experimental  attitude,  as  against  the  lazy 
acceptance  of  convenient  finalities,  that  make  for 
courageous  and  aggressive  facing  of  problems  and  of 
one's  own  thoughts,  as  against  the  complacent  accept- 
ance of  current  but  meaningless  formulas.  Beginning 
with  the  shapeless  movements  that  are  satisfying  in 
themselves,  we  must  seek  to  help  the  child  develop  well 
organized,  systematic  schemes  of  action  that  fit  into  a 
world  of  concrete  realities,  and  that  are  under  the  guid- 
ance not  of  whim  or  blind  impulse,  or  of  conventional 
routine,  but  of  reasoned  principle. 

OUTLINE 
1.      SOURCES    OF   ACTION 

a.  Movements  forced  in  response  to  stimuli 

b.  "Spontaneous"  action  distinguished  from  random  or 

impulsive 

c.  Acquired  modes  of  response  to  familiar  or  conven- 

tional suggestion 


INITIATIVE  AND  SPONTANEITY  95 

2.  FREEDOM   AND    COERCION 

a.  Exposure  to  repressive  influences 

(1)  Intimidation 

(2)  Disapprobation 

b.  Artificial  and  arbitrary  criteria 

c.  Conventionalized  inertia 

3.  CONTROLLED    SPONTANEITY 

a.  Limitations  on  freedom 

(1)  The  environment  of  matter  and  force 

(2)  The  human  restrictions 

(3)  Social  needs 

b.  Achievement  of  control 

4.  TRAINING   FOR   INITIATIVE 

a.  Opportunity  for  self-expression 

b.  Encouragement 

c.  Stimulating  example 

d.  Avoidance  of  too  much  help 

e.  Avoidance  of  arbitrary  restraints 

5.  IDEAL   AIMS 

a.  Experimental  attitude 

b.  Courage  to  think  through 

c.  Respect  for  objective  reality 

d.  Direction  by  rational  considerations 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Clapp,  Henry  Lincoln  —  The  Development  of  Spontaneity, 
Initiative,  and  Responsibility  in  School  Children: 
Education,  XLI,  209-221,  December,  1920 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:    151-159 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Education  for  Initiative  and  Originality: 
Teachers'  College  Record,  XVIII 


96  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Non-Technical 

Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn  —  Schools  of  Tomorrow: 
Chap.  VI,  "Freedom  and  Individuality" 

Hughes,  James  L.  —  FroebeVs  Educational  Laws:    154-178, 
222-247 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:   310- 
323 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Individuality 

Technical 

Richards,  Albertina  A.  —  Motive  in  Education: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXVIII,  60-72,  1921 


23.     AMBITIONS  AND  IDEALS 

From  unconsciously  reaching  out  toward  the  objects 
that  catch  his  attention,  and  from  unconsciously 
imitating  the  actions  and  expressions  of  the  people  he 
sees,  the  child  gradually  comes  to  be  aware  of  wanting 
things  that  are  not  present  to  his  senses,  and  of  wanting 
to  be  like,  or  to  do  like,  persons  he  does  not  see.  When 
the  imagination  has  developed  to  a  certain  point,  it 
combines  elements  of  past  experience  in  new  ways;  and 
any  such  combination  that  appeals  to  the  child  as 
worthy  of  reahzation,  becomes  an  ''ideal." 

The  personal  ideals  are  thus  constructed  out  of 
observed  models,  to  begin  with.  To  be  like  father  or 
like  mother,  to  have  the  power  or  the  things  that  grown 
folks  have,  to  do  what  the  mighty  and  admired  men  and 
women  of  the  limited  environment  —  these  become 
objects  of  the  heart's  desire. 

Ideals  are  progressive  just  because  (and  just  to  the 
extent  that)  experience  and  ideas  grow.  The  early 
models  that  the  child  adopts  are  expanded  and  refined 
through  the  influence  of  stories  heard,  pictures  seen, 
books  read,  personalities  felt,  through  the  witnessing 
of  drama  upon  the  stage  and  in  real  life. 

From  a  desire  to  secure  pleasure  or  satisfaction  for 
himself,  the  child  passes  to  an  attitude  toward  his 
group  —  he  seeks  both  the  recognition  or  admiration  of 
others  and  the  opportunity  to  serve  others.  From  the 
hero  as  embodiment  of  envied  or  admired  virtues, 

97 


^8  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

serving  as  an  extraneous  model,  the  ideal  is  assimilated 
until  the  child  comes  to  impersonate  his  hero  and  to 
play  the  role  as  well  as  he  can.  In  the  end  the  attributes 
of  this  ideal  person  become  abstracted  as  principles  or 
rules  of  conduct.  With  each  successive  ideal  or 
ambition,  the  child  may  be  guided  into  establishing 
habits  of  conduct  or  of  attitude  that  correspond  to  the 
outstanding  virtues  of  the  ideal  and  of  the  period. 

It  is  necessary  to  give  the  child  not  only  an  ever 
growing  opportunity  to  acquire  new  ideals,  but  also 
every  encouragement  to  put  the  present  ideals  into 
practice.  Otherwise  there  is  no  means  for  determining 
relative  values  of  ideals,  or  their  practicability.  We 
must  guard  on  the  one  hand  against  disparaging  untried 
ideals,  with  the  danger  of  cynicism  or  indifference  to  all 
ideahsm;  and  on  the  other  hand,  against  approving  a 
vague  reverence  for  untried  ideals,  with  the  correspond- 
ing danger  of  sentimentalism. 

Since  the  ideals  expand  with  the  child's  acquaintance 
in  the  world  of  human  conduct  and  relations,  attention 
should  be  directed  to  the  companions,  literature,  and 
amusements,  that  furnish  him  so  much  of  his  incidental 
information.  The  school,  the  church,  the  theater,  the 
current  magazines  and  newspapers  contribute  more 
or  less  systematically  to  the  ideals  of  the  rising  genera- 
tion. 

Almost  from  the  earliest  years  the  child  needs  help 
in  formulating  his  ideals  and  purposes.  This  aid  comes 
largely  in  the  form  of  precepts  and  proverbs,  epigrams 
and  aphorisms.  But  we  should  neither  depend  too 
much  upon  them  as  effective  guides  to  the  child's 
decisions  in  conduct;  nor  commend  them  too  pointedly 


AMBITIONS  AND  IDEALS  99 

as  valid  guides.  As  the  child  grows  older  the  oppor- 
tunity to  clear  up  his  own  thoughts  and  feelings  through 
discussions  with  companions  and  with  more  mature 
persons  can  be  of  decided  help. 

At  every  stage  the  child  should  be  encouraged  to  live 
up  to  his  ideal  even  at  a  sacrifice,  for  it  is  better  to 
hold  fast  and  fail,  than  to  weaken  and  gain  through  a 
mischance. 

OUTLINE 

1.  NATURE   AND    SOURCES 

a.  Conscious  imagining  of  desires 

b.  Progressively  modified  during  growth 

c.  Influenced  by  experience  and  suggestion 

2.  DEVELOPMENT 

a.  Desire  for  objects  —  things  that  yield  pleasure 

b.  Imitation  of  heroes 

c.  Eagerness  to  excel  (rivalry) 

d.  Abstract  principles  of  conduct 

3.  USES 

a.  Furnish  stimvihis  to  effort 

b.  Offer  opportunity  for  inculcating  desirable  habits 

c.  Serve  as  nucleus  for  unifying  interests,  studies,  etc. 

d.  Make  possible  development  of  a  compelling  purpose 

e.  Determine  choice  of  career  and  of  level  of  conduct 

4.  DANGERS 

a.  Indulgence  in  fantasy  and  day-dreaming,  as  escape 

from  reality  and  responsibility 

b.  Over-reaching  to  the  impossible,  ending  in  sentimen- 

talism 

c.  Fixation  at  low  level  of  satisfaction 

d.  Loss  of  faith  in  ideals 


100  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

5.       GUIDANCE   AND    CONTROL 

a.  Example  of  surrounding  personalities  in  home 

b.  Companions 

c.  Literature;  biography 

d.  Stimulation  and  inspiration  of  school,  church,  theater, 

etc. 

e.  Opportunity  for  graded  objective  experience 

f.  Aid  in  formulating  purposes 

g.  Encouragement  to  hold  fast 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Children's  Ideals: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  VII,  3-12,  1900 

Studies  in  Education: 

"Children's  Ambitions"  (Hattie  Mason  Willard), 

Second  Series,  243-253 

Bateman,  W,  G.  —  The  Ideals  of  Some  Western  Children: 
Educational  Review,  LI,  21-39 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  XI,  "Children's  Ideals  and  Ambitions" 
Sons  and  Daughters: 
"The  Passing  Ideal,"  71-74; 
"The  DabbUng  Adolescent,"  75-78 

Non^Technical 

Barnes,   Earl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

"Type  Study  in  Ideals"  (Earl  Barnes),  Second 
Series,  37-40,  78-80,  115-120,  157-160,  198-200, 
237-240,  277-280,  319-320,  359-360 

Bateman,  W.  G.  —  Some  Western  Ideals  in  the  High  School: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXIII,  570-584,  1916 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  Adler's  Theory  of  Minderwertigkeit: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXII,  204-217,  1915 


AMBITIONS  AND  IDEALS  101 

Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

"Negative   Ideals"  (Henry  H.  Goddard),  Second 
Series,  392-398 

Chambers — W.  G.  —  The  Evolution  of  Ideals: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  X,  101-143,  1903 

Hill,  D.  S.  —  Comparative  Study  of  Children's  Ideals: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XVIII,  219-231,  1911 


24.     RIVALRY  AND  COMPETITION 

We  are  all  rather  completely  immersed  in  competi- 
tive pursuits.  As  a  result,  most  of  us  are  likely  to  take 
the  feelings  of  rivalry  and  the  corresponding  modes  of 
conduct  for  granted  as  natural.  Moreover,  most  of  us 
are  likely  to  justify  these  feelings  and  conduct  as  right 
or  necessary  despite  the  obvious  damage  from  the 
scheme  of  relationships  which  habitual  competition 
involves. 

What  lies  back  of  the  competitive  mode  of  behavior 
is  probably  not  a  simple  instinct  or  trait  of  "human 
nature,"  but  a  speciahzed  form  of  the  desire  for  being 
noticed,  influenced  by  the  imitation  of  what  is  going  on 
around  us.  The  child  begins  very  early  to  imitate 
movements,  sounds,  facial  expressions,  gestures  that 
he  observes;  sooner  or  later  he  discovers  that  the 
various  tricks  which  at  first  yielded  satisfaction  in 
themselves,  or  through  the  attention  they  drew  upon 
him,  cease  to  satisfy ;  and  the  only  way  he  has  of  getting 
attention  is  to  do  what  others  are  doing,  but  to  a 
degree  that  is  superlative.  This  rivalry  is  analogous 
to  the  strutting  of  the  male  birds  or  the  coy  preenings 
of  the  female ;  these  performances  stimulate  the  animals 
to  further  efforts  in  the  same  direction,  and  give  the 
appearance  of  "competition." 

The  value  of  rivalry  for  the  developing  child  lies  in 
bringing  to  his  attention,  and  stimulating  his  efforts 
for,  a  variety  of  activities,  and  so  in  acquainting  him 

102 


RIVALRY  AND  COMPETITION  103 

with  the  degrees  to  which  he  may  hope  to  master  the 
different  kinds  of  activity.  His  successes,  in  addition 
to  the  skill  derived  from  the  effort  and  practice,  con- 
tribute to  his  self-esteem;  his  failures  ought  at  least  to 
contribute  to  his  respect  for  others. 

There  are  dangers,  however,  in  too  insistent  an 
emphasis  upon  the  importance  of  attaining  the  extreme 
of  achievement,  or  of  excelling.  After  all,  we  cannot 
excel  in  everything;  and  most  of  us  cannot  excel  in 
anything.  To  make  the  child  value  too  highly  the 
winning  in  every  competition  or  contest,  instead  of 
the  game,  is  not  only  to  destroy  his  sportsmanship,  but 
to  lay  the  foundations  for  more  or  less  serious  inferiority 
complexes.  These  hurt  the  child  by  destroying  his  self- 
esteem,  by  driving  him  to  socially  undesirable  modes  of 
self-assertion,  and  by  making  him  rationalize  his  own 
status  through  disparaging  the  achievement  of  others. 
This  makes  for  envy,  discontent,  and  hostility  to  the 
group. 

There  are  of  course  corresponding  dangers  to  the 
conceit  and  self-sufficiency  of  the  child  who  does  early 
excel  in  the  few  things  he  has  attempted,  and  who 
is  shrewd  enough  to  avoid  competition  in  doubtful 
directions. 

The  development  of  the  child's  personality  through 
experience  in  competitive  efforts  should  be  directed 
toward  the  discovery  of  satisfactions  in  group  activities 
that  teach  loyalty,  cooperation  and  sacrifice  toward 
satisfaction  involving  not  the  individual's  distinction 
but  the  team's,  or  school's,  or  club's  distinction,  and 
to  that  extent  an  enlargement  of  the  child's  capacity 
to  serve   and  to   identify  himself  with  the  common 


104  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

interest.  His  personality  should  grow  through  his 
identification  of  himself  with  progressively  larger 
groups.  The  interest  should  further  be  directed  toward 
the  discovery  of  values,  the  pursuit  of  which  will  yield 
satisfaction  without  involving  loss  or  injury  to  others, 
and  which  will  at  the  same  time  make  the  self-assertion 
distinctive  and  fruitful  of  the  kind  of  recognition  that  is 
desired. 

The  child  needs  opportunities  for  discovering  as 
much  as  possible  of  what  is  worth  doing,  of  his  own 
capacities  and  Umitations,  and  of  what  distinctive 
combinations  of  effort  will  yield  the  greatest  value. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE    NATURE    OF    RIVALRY 

a.  Comparison  with  lower  animals 

b.  Source  in  self-assertiveness  or  desire  for  recognition 

c.  Conditioned  by  imitativeness 

2.  THE   VALUE    OF   COMPETITIVE   ACTIVITIES 

a.  The  discovery  of  what  kinds  of  activities  there  are 

b.  The  discovery  of  own  abilities  and  limitations 

c.  Stimulation  to  maximum  effort 

d.  Respect  for  achievement  of  others 

e.  Development  of  group  loyalties 

3.  THE   DANGERS   IN    OVEREMPHASIS    ON   EXCELLING 

a.  To  the  winners 

(1)  Complacency  and  conceit 

(2)  Contempt  for  divergent  types  of  achievement 

(3)  Lack  of  sympathy  for  others 

b.  To  the  losers 

(1)  Inferiority  complexes 

(2)  Disparagement  of  conventional  values 

(3)  Envy  and  discontent 

(4)  Hostility  toward  the  group 


RIVALRY  AND  COMPETITION  105 

c.  To  both  winners  and  losers 

(1)  Distorted  scale  of  values 

(2)  Arrest  of  development 

4.      THE    NEEDS    OF   THE    CHILD 

a.  Opportunity  to  discover  own  potentialities  and  limita- 

tions 

b.  Opportunity  for  getting  approval  and  recognition  in 

worthy  achievement,  whether  in  work,  study,  or 
play 

c.  Opportunity  to  transfer  the  competitive  interest 

(1)  From  himself  to  the  group 

(2)  From  childish  and  cheap  or  conventional  aims 

to  selected  and  distinctive  aims 


REFERENCES 
Popular 

Drummond,  W.  B.  —  ^n  Introduction  to  Child  Study:  170, 
220-221 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:    144-147 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 

Chap.  XXIV,  "Big  Injun,"  328-331 

Non-Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and 

Hygiene:  83-86 

NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood:  68- 
70,  208-209,  219-297 

Tanner,  A.  E,  —  The  Child:  65,  326 

Techyiical 

WooDWORTH,  R.  S.  —  Dynamic  Psychology:    165-166,  489, 
543 


25.     CLUBS  AND  GANGS 

The  undifferentiated  gregariousness  which,  in  the 
young  child,  finds  comfort  in  the  mere  presence  of 
others,  gradually  gives  way  to  a  more  discriminating 
segregation  of  the  like-minded.  The  boys  and  girls 
will  flock  by  themselves;  and  soon  a  number  of  boys 
cUng  together  sufficiently  to  constitute  a  gang.  They 
are  apparently  held  together  about  as  much  by  their 
aversion  to  other  folks,  especially  older  folks,  as  by 
what  they  find  interesting  in  one  another.  The 
groupings  of  girls  are  not,  as  a  rule,  either  so  large,  so 
coherent,  or  so  persistent  as  are  those  of  boys.  Girls 
seem  to  be  more  easily  satisfied  with  closer  and  more 
restricted  intimacies. 

The  activities  of  these  groups  vary  from  communal 
dawdhngto  the  most  ambitious  projecting  of  andprepa- 
ration  for  grand  adventures  on  land  and  sea.  For  the 
most  part,  however,  they  consist  of  playing  games, 
fighting  other  gangs,  hunting  or  fishing,  robbing 
orchards,  annoying  unpopular  neighbors,  and  holding 
secret  meetings  in  the  role  of  pirates  or  highwaymen. 
Occasionally  these  gangs  persist,  especially  in  the 
larger  cities,  in  the  form  of  athletic  or  social  clubs. 

As  in  most  of  the  spontaneous  manifestations  of 
children's  impulses,  these  groupings  and  activities 
have  in  them  both  dangers  and  potentialities  of  great 
social  and  personal  value.  The  great  danger  lies  in  the 
fact  that  leadership  is  random,  that  the  community 

106 


CLUBS  AND  GANGS  107 

too  easily  antagonizes  the  group  and  its  members,  and 
that  no  provision  appears  for  the  stimulation  of  the 
further  development  of  the  gang's  virtues.  The 
possibilities  for  making  valuable  contributions  to  the 
development  of  its  members  and  to  the  community  as 
a  whole,  appear  from  the  very  characteristics  that  dis- 
tinguish the  "bad"  gang  —  extreme  loyalty,  readiness 
for  self-sacrifice,  and  the  spirit  of  cooperation  and 
fidelity.  These  are  all  forces  making  for  a  high  degree 
of  solidarity.  If  this  sohdarity  is  enabled  to  expand 
to  the  larger  community,  the  result  is  in  every  respect 
desirable. 

A  recognition  of  the  possibilities  latent  in  the  gang 
conspired  with  other  forces  about  1910,  resulted  in 
systematic  efforts  to  organize  and  standardize  gang 
interests,  gang  activities,  and  gang  virtues  into  the 
"Boy  Scouts"  and  kindred  organizations.  Similar 
experiments  in  large  numbers  were  made  on  a  small 
scale  in  this  country  and  various  European  countries 
twenty  or  more  years  earlier.  The  Boy  Scout  move- 
ment started  at  a  time  when  all  the  conditions  were 
favorable,  and  when  a  few  leaders  of  ability  and  imagi- 
nation were  available.  Although  boys  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
accept  as  readily  as  do  girls  direction  of  their  gangs 
from  without,  these  large  organizations  have  operated 
in  a  manner  that  removes  the  appearance  of  external 
direction,  and  that  provides  all  the  conditions  favorable 
to  the  stimulation  of  the  very  best  of  the  social  impulses 
of  youth. 


108  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE   INTEGRATION   OF   GANGS 

a.  Spontaneous  aggregation 

b.  Separation  from  outsiders 

c.  Development  of  common  group  interests 

d.  Appearance  of  leadership 

e.  Sex  differences 

2.  THE   ACTIVITIES 

(More  distinctive  with  boys) 

a.  Hunting,  fishing,  etc. 

b.  Quest  of  adventure 

c.  Tribal  occupations 

d.  Fighting  other  gangs 

e.  Athletics  and  games 

3.  EFFECTS    OF   THE    GANG 

a.  The  gang  virtues,   tribal  virtues 

(1)  "Be  loyal  to  friend,  be  liar  to  enemy" 

(2)  Obedience  to  law  (of  the  gang) 

(3)  SeK-sacrifice 

(4)  Cooperation 

(5)  Solidarity 

b.  The  dangers 

(1)  Anti-social  fixation 

(2)  Dissipation  and  failure  to  mature 

(3)  Misdirection  through  vicious  leadership 

c.  The  possibilities 

(1)  Discipline  of  the  individual 

(2)  Development  of  social  consciousness 

(3)  Adjustment  of  personality  to  others 

4.  DIRECTION  AND    GUIDANCE 

a.  Help  in  organization 

b.  Legitimization 

c.  Provision  of  meeting  place 

d.  Standardization  of  pursuits  and  procedure 

e.  Formulation  of  ideals 

f.  Educational  possibihties  in  Boy  Scout  and  kindred 

movements 

g.  Utihzation  for  systematic  education 

h.  Possibilities  for  mixed  clubs  (boys  and  girls) 


CLUBS  AND  GANGS  109 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Curtis,  H.  S.  —  The  Boy  Scouts: 

Educational  Review,  L,  495-508,  1915 
FoRBUSH,  W.  B.  —  The  Boy  Problem: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Ways  in  Which  Boys  Spontaneously 

Organize  Socially"; 
Chap.  IV,  "Social  Organizations  Formed  for  Boys 
by  Adults" 
The  Coming  Generation: 
Chap.  VI,  "How  a  Child  Does  His  Thinking," 
81-84,  346-353 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  57,  293-296 
Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap,  X,  "Children's  Gangs,  Clubs,  and  Friend- 
ships" 
KiRTLEY,  J.  S.  —  That  Boy  of  Yours: 
Chap.  XIV,  "His  Gang"; 
Chap  XV,  "His  Chums"; 
Chap.  XXII,  "Organizing  Boys" 
Puffer,  J.  A.  —  The  Boy  and  His  Gang: 

Chap.  II,  "The  General  Nature  of  the  Gang"; 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Anthropology  and  Psychology  of 

the  Gang"; 
Chap.  XI,  "The  Special  Virtues  of  the  Gang"; 
Chap.  XII,    "The    Gang    in    Constructive    Social 
Work" 

Non-Technical 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:    54, 

118-120 
Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 

Chap.  XXXIX,  "Play  and  Drudgery"; 

Chap.  XL,  "The  Land  of  the  Leal"; 

Chap.  XLI,  "The  Gang  Standard" 


no  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Sheldon,  H.  D,  —  The  Institutional  Activities  of  American 
Children: 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  IX,  425-448,  1898 

Technical 

Hall,    G.    Stanley  —  Adolescence;    II,   396-404,    412-418, 
428-430 

Hartson,  L.  D.  —  The  Psychology  of  the  Club: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XVIII,  353-414,  1911 

Pamphlets 

Boy  Scouts  of  America 

Scouting  for  Boys 

What  Scouts  Do 

The  Manual  of  the  Campfire  Girls 

The  Woodcraft  Manual  for  Boys 

The  Woodcraft  Manual  for  Girl* 


26.    FIGHTING 

The  most  prominent  emotional  accompaniment  of 
fighting  is  anger,  which  is  the  feeling  aroused  primarily 
by  the  restraint  of  action,  and  later  by  the  frustration 
of  impulses  by  some  discoverable  agent.  Thus  we  are 
angry  at  the  man  who  gets  in  our  way  as  we  are  hurrying 
to  catch  a  train,  but  only  a  childish  mind  will  feel  anger 
toward  a  storm  that  interferes  with  his  plans.  The 
so-called  fighting  instinct  is  rather  a  complex  of  many 
impulses.  The  hitting  back  element  is  obvious  enough, 
but  does  not  account  for  the  initiation  of  fighting. 
There  is  present,  in  degrees  varying  with  individuals  as 
well  as  with  sex,  the  desire  to  inflict  pain  as  seen  in 
bullying  and  teasing,  or  to  receive  pain  (the  masochistic 
impulse)  as  seen  also  in  a  certain  form  of  teasing,  which 
seems  to  be  an  invitation  to  "punishment."  Both  of 
these  may  be  special  forms  of  self-assertiveness,  or 
unconscious  search  for  attention  or  recognition.  But 
neither  bullying  nor  teasing  is  perhaps  altogether  a 
simple  matter.  There  is  present  in  fighting  a  relic  of 
feeUngs  that  point  back,  so  to  say,  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  hunt  and  chase.  And  finally  there  is  an  element 
suggestive  of  rivalry  combat.  This  shows  itself 
strikingly  in  the  fighting  spirit  aroused  during  later 
adolescence,  when  the  appearance  of  a  second  male 
converts  the  good  company  of  the  female  into  an 
extremely  irritating  situation  for  the  first  one. 

The  defensive  and  offensive  activities  constituting 

111 


112  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

fight,  have  biological  meaning  in  so  far  as  they  serve  as 
adaptive  means  for  protection  against  inimical  factors 
of  the  environment  and  for  the  conquest  of  prey  for 
food,  etc. 

On  the  social  plane  fighting  has  been  of  value  in  the 
conflicts  of  groups,  tribes,  nations,  and  so  on;  but  is 
probably  to-day,  in  civilized  man,  a  vestige  fraught 
with  dangers  if  allowed  to  take  its  course  undirected. 

In  the  development  of  the  child  there  are  dangers 
connected  in  the  first  place  with  the  direct  injuries 
resulting  from  the  use  of  force  out  of  proportion  to  his 
judgment  and  control  (the  risk  of  serious  physical  injury 
increasing  with  age).  In  the  second  place  there  are 
dangers  connected  with  the  estabUshment  of  attitudes 
or  values  on  relatively  low  stages  of  personal  or  social 
evolution. 

In  the  child's  training  it  is  therefore  necessary  in 
the  first  place  to  allow  frank  fighting  with  children  of 
his  own  size,  in  order  that  the  emotions  leading  to  the 
activities  may  not  be  repressed  and  turned  into  brooding 
hatred  and  vindictiveness.  It  is  good  psychology  to 
let  the  child  ''work  off"  his  anger,  or  "get  it  out  of  his 
system.".  On  the  other  hand,  bullying  an^  teasing 
should  be  discouraged;  although  the  most  effective 
discouragement  is  likely  to  come  from  a  thorough-going 
thrashing  administered  by  a  worm  that  has  turned,  or 
by  some  other  child.  Later  substitutes  can  be  found 
in  wrestling  and  boxing  and  in  organized  athletic  con- 
tests in  which  the  fight  elements  are  more  or  less  con- 
ventionalized. Apart  from  the  psychological  effects 
upon  the  circulation  and  glands,  these  contests  have  the 
further  advantage  of  training  the  child  for  deliberate 


FIGHTING  113 

and  calculating  action  while  under  stress,  a  very 
important  means  of  a*ttaining  to  control  of  temper  and 
moods. 

Alongside  of  the  training  for  control  should  proceed 
the  training  that  transfers  the  anger  reaction  from  the 
personal  and  physical  restraints  to  the  social  and  ideal 
frustrations.  This  is,  of  course,  a  part  of  that  training 
which  on  the  one  hand  enlarges  the  individual's  con- 
sciousness of  "self"  to  include  his  family,  school,  com- 
munity, nation,  race  —  and  on  the  other  hand  projects 
his  sensitiveness  to  injury  from  his  own  skin  to  the 
vaguer  but  no  less  real  concepts  of  ''  fair  play,"  "honor," 
"justice,"  etc. 

The  fighting  "instinct "  may  thus  be  preserved  while 
it  is  bekig  guided  to  function  on  progressively  higher 
stages  of  human  worth.  Instead  of  becoming  a  bully 
or  a  pugilist  there  is  the  possibility  of  becoming  a 
knight  perpetually  combating  disease,  or  corruption,  or 
poverty,  or  injustice,  or  ignorance  —  or  war;  and  with 
the  growth  of  knowledge  and  power  and  self-confidence 
the  negative  and  antagonistic  forces  may  eventually 
become  the  drive  for  positive  and  constructive  efforts. 


OUTLINE 


1.      COMPOSITION 

a.  Anger 

b.  Self-assertiveness 

(1)  Bullying 

(2)  Teasing 

c.  Chase  and  flight 

d.  Rivalry-combat 


114  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

2.  USES 

a.  Biological 

b.  Social 

3.  DANGERS 

a.  Disproportionate  effects 

b.  Fixations 

4.  TRAINING 

a.  Fighting  as  discipline 

b.  Sublimation  to  higher  levels 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Abbott,  E.  H.  —  On  the  Training  of  Parents: 

Chap.  V,  "For  'Tis  Their  Nature  To" 

Dickinson,  G.  A.  —  Your  Boy:   13,  83-88 

FoRBUSH,  W.  B.  —  The  Coming  Generation:   6-12 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:    127-130 

Non-Technical 

BoGARDUS,  E.  S.  —  Essentials  of  Social  Psychology:    68-71, 
221-236 

James,   William  —  The  Moral  Equivalent  of  War: 

International  Conciliation,  No.  27,  February,  1910 

KiRKPATRicK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study:  104-106 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 

Chap.  XXV,  "The  Fighting  Instinct" 

McDouGALL,  W.  —  Social  Psychology: 

Chap.  XI,  "Instinct  of  Pugnacity" 

NoRswoRTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood:  54-, 
57,  89-91 


FIGHTING  115 

Puffer,  J.  A.  —  The  Boy  and  His  Gang:  65-71,  88-93 
Swift,  E.  J.  —  Mind  in  the  Making:  37-40 
Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child:  322-324 

Technical 
Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence:  I,  353-357 


27.    PLAY 

That  type  of  puritanism  that  considers  play  a  device 
of  the  devil  to  mislead  the  children  of  man  is  perhaps 
not  more  ancient  than  the  insight  which  observes  the 
dulling  effect  of  the  repression  of  play  impulses.  How- 
ever annoying  the  shouts  of  children  at  play  may  be 
to  a  nervous  adult  trying  to  nap  while  the  sun  is 
shining,  however  it  may  irritate  us  to  see  the  children 
prefer  their  foolish  games  to  the  very  precious  lessons 
we  seek  to  impress  upon  them,  it  remains  true  that 
play,  whether  considered  as  an  impulse  or  as  an 
indulgence,  is  neither  wicked  nor  useless. 

There  are  two  groups  of  theories  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  play  impulse  in  children,  neither  of  them  alto- 
gether satisfactory.  According  to  the  one,  children 
do  what  they  do  as  a  preparation  for  the  serious  business 
they  will  have  to  carry  on  later.  This  assumes  a 
purposeful  implanting  of  impulses  that  have  relations 
to  needs  that  are  to  appear  later,  or  an  evolution  of 
types  in  which  the  results  of  play  during  childhood 
were  of  survival  value  to  adults.  If  one  is  willing  to 
accept  this  kind  of  "explanation,"  he  might  as  well 
ask  for  the  implanting  of  instincts  that  are  ready  to 
work  when  needed.  There  is  here  an  overemphasis 
on  the  supposed  adaptiveness  of  all  human  traits,  or  a 
frank  teleology. 

The  other  group  of  theories  assumes  the  so-called 
law  of  biogenesis  as  universally  applicable,  and  accord- 

116 


PLAY  117 

ingly  looks  upon  the  succession  of  impulses  that  the 
child  manifests  in  the  course  of  the  years  as  a  recapitula- 
tion of  the  outstanding  activities  of  the  various  stages 
in  our  ancestral  history.  This  implies  that  the 
cultural  stage  of  the  race  at  any  time  is  the  expression 
of  the  organic  evolution  attained,  or  that  somehow  the 
adjustive  responses  to  the  environment  become  fixed 
in  the  heritage  of  the  race. 

Perhaps  it  suffices  to  look  upon  play  as  impulses  to 
action  due  to  the  general  complexity  and  irritabiUty 
of  the  organism,  the  form  of  the  play  being  determined 
by  a  combination  of  influences  in  the  materials  and 
processes  present  in  the  environment.  Play  is  thus  the 
progressively  organized  spontaneous  activity  of  the 
child  as  distinguished  from  activity  that  is  either 
mechanically  acquired  and  meaningless  routine  move- 
ment, or  outwardly  directed  or  enforced  "work." 

From  this  viewpoint  we  can  at  once  see  "play" 
directly  i  elated  to  an  optimum  of  physical  exertion 
and  to  a  high  emotional  tone  of  a  generally  pleasurable 
quality,  both  making  for  physical  and  spiritual  health. 
Moreover,  as  the  child  learns  from  his  experiences,  his 
play  reacts  upon  his  mental  processes,  and  so  influences 
further  associations,  thinking  habits,  and  skill,  as  well 
as  his  mental  content. 

For  these  reasons  the  spontaneous  activities  and 
interests  require  guidance  both  in  the  sense  of  protecting 
children  against  injurious  or  excessive  activities,  and 
in  the  positive  sense  of  furnishing  them  opportunities 
and  materials  suitable  to  their  successive  stages  of 
development,  to  their  prevailing  interests,  and  to  their 
temperamental  requirements.     In  this  way  the  play 


118  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

of  the  child,  from  the  shaking  of  a  rattle  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  amateur  theatricals  for  the  benefit  of  unfortu- 
nates, is  a  vital  education,  and  a  progressive  adjustment 
to  the  finding  of  satisfaction  in  arduous,  constructive 
effort.  The  development  of  skill  and  endurance,  the 
cultivation  of  persistence  and  courage,  are  quite  within 
the  effects  of  an  intelligent  direction  of  play  interests. 
Because  play  is  spontaneous  as  well  as  unproductive 
in  a  direct  economic  sense,  children  have  been  largely 
left  to  their  own  resources,  in  too  many  cases  with 
incalculably  injurious  results.  As  we  come  to  see  the 
importance  of  play  both  for  the  health  and  happiness 
of  the  child  day  by  day,  and  for  his  best  development, 
we  must  make  more  provision  for  play  materials  and 
opportunities  in  school  as  well  as  in  the  home,  and 
eventually  in  the  community  at  large.  Through 
playgrounds  and  parks,  through  recreation  centers  and 
amusement  halls,  properly  directed  and  supervised, 
the  children  of  the  conununity  must  find  the  normal 
outlets  for  their  impulses  under  conditions  that  make 
for  the  utmost  satisfaction  of  the  individual  and  the 
greatest  safety  and  welfare  of  the  group. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THEORIES    OF    PLAY 

a.  Wanton,  wasteful,  trifling 

b.  Instinctive  rehearsal  for  the  game  of  life 

c.  Recapitulation  of  the  race's  struggle 

2.  VALUE    OF    PLAY 

a.  Physical  effects 

b.  Relation  to  emotions  and  health 

c.  Mental  reactions 


PLAY  119 

3.  DIEECTION    OF    PLAY 

a.  Educational  possibilities 

b.  Grading  of  opportunities 

c.  Play  and  work 

4.  RESPONSIBILITIES    FOR   PLAY 

a.  Provision  in  the  home 

b.  School 

c.  Community  organization 

(1)  Playgrounds 

(2)  Recreation  centers 

(3)  Amusements 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Addams,  Jane  —  The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Street:  51-106 

Curtis,  H.  S.  —  Education  Through  Play:  1-16,  17-26,  59-84, 

345-355 
GuLiCK,  L.  H.  —  Psychological,  Pedagogical,  and  Religious 
Aspects  of  Group  Games: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  135-151,  1898 
Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 
Chap.  I,  "Play  is  Serious"; 
Chap.  VII,  "Play  and  Teaching"; 
Chap.  IX,  "Play  and  Work"; 
Chap.  XI,  "The  Four  Ages  of  Childhood" 

Non-Technical 

Johnson,  G.  E.  —  Education  by  Play  and  Games: 

Chap.  I,  "Theory,  History,  and  Place  of  Play  in 

Education"; 
Chap.  II,  "Play  in  Education" 
KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 

Chap.  IX,  "Development  of  Adaptive  Instincts  — 
Play" 


120  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child: 
Chap.  XX,  "Play" 

Waddle,  Charles  W.  —  An  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology: 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Play  of  Children" 

Technical 
Groos,  Karl  —  The  Play  of  Man:  Pt.  Ill 


28.     TRAVEL  AND  ADVENTURE 

The  instinct  to  wander  is  almost  universal,  at  least 
just  before  maturity.  The  reason  we  do  not  all  become 
vagrants  lies  apparently  not  so  much  in  our  indifference 
to  new  scenes  and  experiences,  as  in  our  ability  to  adjust 
ourselves  more  or  less  satisfactorily  to  a  settled  life. 

The  impulse  to  move  forth  will  show  itself  in  most 
children  as  soon  as  there  is  reached  a  combination  of 
facility  in  locomotion  with  an  imagination  that  extends 
beyond  the  horizon  —  that  is  to  say,  in  about  the 
fourth  year.  The  desire  to  see  what  lies  around  the 
corner  or  over  the  hill  is  perfectly  legitimate;  and  its 
satisfaction  with  the  cooperation  of  an  adult  may  pre- 
vent the  more  dangerous  surreptitious  exploratory 
flight,  or  the  strain  and  chafing  of  unfulfilled  longing. 
The  impulse  is  likely  to  attain  its  greatest  force  during 
adolescence,  when  it  combines  with  other  forces  that 
push  the  child  out  of  the  monotony  of  his  earlier  routine. 

The  desire  to  wander  is  related  intellectually  to 
curiosity,  and  emotionally  to  the  romantic  search  for 
adventure  and  mystery.  It  would  seem  more  profitable 
to  deal  with  it  in  a  constructive  attempt  to  find  satis- 
fying indulgences  and  substitutes,  rather  than  to 
suppress  it.  Excursions  and  hikes  can  be  arranged  in 
most  cases,  even  where  extensive  travel  is  precluded. 
To  a  certain  extent  reading  and  pictures  and  the  movies 
and  theater  can  be  made  to  serve  as  satisfying  sub- 
stitutes. 

121 


122  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Not  all  runaways  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  presence 
of  an  exceptional  urge.  Under  special  circumstances, 
every  boy  and  every  girl  will  become  aware  of  the 
desire  to  escape  annoyance,  or  humiliation,  or  un- 
pleasant tasks  of  home  or  school.  Many  runaways 
are  due  to  a  temporary  weakening  of  inhibition  or 
control,  or  to  a  sudden  whim,  related  to  an  accumula- 
tion of  annoyances,  or  to  friction  with  everyday 
associates.  In  tracing  runaway  escapades  to  the  sug- 
gestiveness  of  the  movies  or  of  lurid  literature,  we  must 
not  overlook  the  fact  that  these  suggestions  pertain 
only  to  the  form  which  the  adventure  may  take,  and 
do  not  initiate  anything  foreign  to  the  thought  or 
feelings  of  the  child.  The  impulse  to  run  away,  as 
distinguished  from  the  more  continuous  love  of  travel 
and  adventure,  is  sporadic  and  dependent  upon  acute 
dissatisfaction  or  discontent  rather  than  upon  positive 
desires.  It  is  negative  in  the  sense  that  it  represents 
the  desire  to  get  away  from  the  present,  rather  than  a 
seeking  of  something  else,  however  vaguely  defined. 

It  seems  to  be  fairly  well  established  that  in  certain 
extreme  and  persistent  forms  the  instinct  to  wander, 
termed  "nomadism"  by  Davenport,  following  Lowell, 
is  a  definitely  inherited  trait.  Nomadism  occurs  more 
often  in  boys  than  in  girls  for  apparently  the  same 
reason  that  color-blindness  does,  namely,  that  it  is  due 
to  a  ''sex-linked"  character-determiner,  which  is  trans- 
mitted through  daughters  to  grandsons:  a  girl  manifests 
this  trait  only  if  both  her  father  and  her  maternal 
grandfather  have  it.  This  trait  is  more  likely  to  be 
common  in  the  pioneering  stock  of  a  young  country 
than  in  more  settled  peoples. 


TRAVEL  AND  ADVENTURE  123 

In  such  inherited  nomadism  the  danger  is  that  it 
will  not  be  recognized  early  enough  to  receive  adequate 
opportunity  and  stimulation  for  diversion  into  useful 
channels.  The  nomadic  impulse  in  a  farm  lad  of  the 
prairies  may  take  him  to  sea  as  a  runaway  and  a 
stowaway;  but  with  a  recognition  of  the  tendency  in 
childhood  it  should  be  possible  to  plan  not  only  for 
systematic  and  legitimate  outlets,  but  for  systematic 
training  for  some  occupation  that  makes  use  of  the 
impulse  in  a  constructive  way.  The  genius  of  the  great 
explorers  and  travelers  probably  has  as  one  of  its 
components  this  impulse  to  go  out  into  the  unknown,  to 
move  from  place  to  place,  on  without  end.  One  need 
not  become  an  itinerant  tinker;  there  are  many  re- 
spectable and  worth-while  occupations  open  to  the 
individual  for  whom  remaining  in  one  place  involves 
too  great  a  strain. 

OUTLINE 

1.  NATURE   AND    ORIGIN   OF   IMPULSE 

a.  Relation  to  curiosity  and  romance 

b.  Normal,  universal  trait 

c.  Extreme  form  inherited 

d.  Morbid  origins 

2.  MANIFESTATIONS 

a.  Childish  runaways 

b.  Preadolescent  and  adolescent  escapes 

c.  Permanent  wanderers 

d.  Casual  runaways 

3.  TREATMENT 

a.  Direct  and  authorized  satisfaction  of  impulse 

(1)  Excursions 

(2)  Hikes,  camping  trips,  etc. 

(3)  Travel 


124  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

b.  Substitutes 

(1)  Reading 

(2)  Theater 

(3)  Pictures 

(4)  Museums 

(5)  Movies 

c.  Sublimation 

Selection  of  and  training  for  occupation  that  in- 
volves travel 
[See  list  of  such  occupations  in  Davenport's  paper] 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

FoRBUSH,  W.  B.  —  The  Coming  Generation: 
Chap.  VIII,  "The  Wander  Years" 

KiRKPATRicK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 
"The  Migratory  Instinct,"  232 

Non-Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence:  I,  348-349 

Puffer,  J.  A.  —  The  Boy  and  His  Gang: 

Chap.  IX,  "The  Tribal  Instincts  and  the  Wander- 
lust" 

Technical 

Davenport,  C.  B.  —  Nomadism,  or  the  Wandering  Impulse, 
with  Special  Reference  to  Heredity:  7-68 

Kline,  L.  W.  —  Truancy  as  Related  to  the  Migrating  Instinct: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  V,  381-420,  1898 
Migratory  Impulse  versus  Love  of  Home: 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  X,  1-81, 1898 


29.     PETS  AND  PLANTS 

There  is  no  substitute  for  the  values  both  intellectual 
and  moral  which  the  child  may  derive  from  a  certain 
intimacy  with  hving  things  of  other  species.  Aside 
from  the  direct  satisfactions  which  their  companionship 
and  his  occupation  with  their  care  yield,  the  keeping 
of  pets,  whether  plant  or  animal,  opens  the  way  for  a 
wide  range  of  supplementary  activities,  furnishes  a 
large  body  of  useful  information,  and  establishes 
habits  of  feeling  and  action  of  lasting  benefit. 

On  the  side  of  understanding,  the  child  learns  the 
solid  basis  for  organic  existence  in  food,  water,  suitable 
temperature,  removal  of  waste,  and  so  on,  principles 
that  are  readily  carried  over  to  his  personal  hygiene 
or  to  the  community's  or  the  home's  practical  prob- 
lems. On  the  side  of  responsibihty,  he  quickly  realizes 
the  need  for  doing  regularly  and  correctly,  things  whose 
omission  brings  suffering  or  death.  The  daily  contact 
with  plants  or  animals  furnishes  to  those  children  who 
do  not  live  in  the  country  amid  domesticated  animals 
and  crop  plants  an  excellent  opening  for  that  body  of 
knowledge  and  interpretation  concerning  sex  which  it 
is  so  essential  to  get  early  in  hfe. 

There  are  substantial  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
keeping  such  living  companions  in  most  town  or  city 
homes;  but  they  are  worth  overcoming  if  that  is  at  all 
possible.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  more  crowded 
communities,  there  are  developments  that  make  pos- 

125 


126  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

sible  for  children  the  valuable  contacts  with  living 
things  through  the  utilization  of  the  common  re- 
sources, such  as  school,  menagerie,  garden,  and  so  on. 


OUTLINE 

1.  INTELLECTUAL   ASPECTS 

a.  Objective  knowledge  about  living  things 

b.  Experience  for  organization  of  later  knowledge 

c.  The    needs    of    organisms    as    basis   for   sanitation, 

hygiene,  etc. 

d.  Counteracting  superstitious  traditions  and  attitudes 

e.  Basis  for  sex  education 

2.  EDUCATIONAL   ASPECTS 

a.  Demand  upon  tenderness  and  consideration 

b.  Evoke  carefulness  and  responsibilit}' 

c.  Aid  in  overcoming  fear 

3.  DIRECT   SATISFACTIONS 

a.  Joyous  occupation  and  formation  of  hobbies 

b.  Companionship 

c.  Satisfying  accessory  occupations 

(1)  Building  houses  for  pets 

(2)  Preparing  ground  for  plants 

4.  OPPORTUNITIES    FOR    COMMUNITY    SOLUTION 

a.  Use  of  public  grounds  for  gardens 

b.  Cultivation  of  plants  in  school 

c.  Care  of  live  animals  in  school 

d.  Wider  use  of  pubHc  gardens  and  menageries 


REFERENCES 

Popular 
Adams,  Morley  —  The  Boy's  Own  Book  of  Pets  and  Hobbies 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  203-206 


PETS  AND  PLANTS  127 

Non-Technical 

CoMSTOCK,  Anna  B.  —  Handbook  of  Nature  Study  for  Teach- 
ers and  Parents:   924-928 

Garrett,  Laura  B.  —  Animal  Families  in  School 

Technical 

Hodge,  Clifton  F.  —  Nature  Study  and  Life: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Children's  Animals  and  Pets" 

HoLTZ,  Frederick  L.  —  Nature  Study: 
Chap.  VII,  "Animal  Study" 

Practical 
CoMSTOCK,  Anna  B.  —  The  Pet  Book 
Crandall,  Lee  S.  —  Pets,  Their  History  and  Care 
Verrill,  a.  Hyatt  — Pets  for  Pleasure  and  Profit 

Pamphlets 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletins  on 
Corn  Clubs,  Poultry  Clubs,  etc. 


30.  >  THE  OUTDOOR  LIFE 

Very  few  "educated"  men  and  women  brought  up 
in  modern  cities  would  be  able,  if  suddenly  thrown 
upon  their  own  resources,  to  find  their  way  about  in 
the  woods,  to  say  nothing  of  finding  necessary  food, 
securing  shelter  or  building  a  fire  without  the  sophis- 
ticated appUances  that  are  purchased  at  the  store. 
There  is,  of  course,  no  good  reason  why  civilized  people 
should  either  return  to  the  savage  state,  or  even 
acquire  the  primitive  arts  of  life,  for  which  the  modern 
city  furnishes  few  outlets.  But  there  are  substantial 
values  to  be  derived  from  occasional  or  frequent  returns 
to  the  primitive,  for  like  Antaeus  we  gain  fresh  strength 
from  every  contact  with  mother  earth.  It  is  important 
for  children  to  acquire  early  in  life  both  the  direct 
benefits  of  experiences  with  the  world  of  nature,  and  a 
fondness  for  such  experiences  that  will  insure  their 
continued  recourse  to  them. 

For  the  child  not  too  much  molded  by  city  life  there 
is  a  wide  range  of  satisfactions  to  be  had  from  the  direct 
contact  with  outdoor  things,  animate  and  inanimate. 
Fishing  and  hunting  represent  very  early  forms  of 
activity  which  still  appeal  strongly  to  man  of  to-day,  and 
which  show  themselves  in  the  almost  irresistible  desire 
to  throw  stones  at  birds  and  squirrels,  to  stalk  animals, 
and  to  let  the  mind  wander  afield  through  the  open 
window  with  the  first  smell  of  spring.  If  we  consider 
the  destruction  of  hving  things  in  response  to  these 

128 


THE  OUTDOOR  LIFE  129 

impulses  to  be  inexcusably  wanton,  it  is  possible  to 
develop  satisfying  substitutes,  as  in  the  hobby  of 
''shooting"  game  with  a  camera.  At  any  rate  the  lure 
of  the  wild  or  of  the  water  is  there  and  deserving  of  large 
concessions,  both  for  the  physical  health  it  makes 
available  and  for  the  release  it  offers  from  the  strains 
of  the  artificialities  of  house  and  city. 

On  the  educational  side,  outdoor  life  offers  acquaint- 
ance with  the  significant  facts  of  nature ;  the  lessons  of 
inexorable  law;  the  silences  for  thinking;  limitless  space 
for  perspective.  The  activities  of  the  canoe  or  hunting 
trip,  of  the  long  hike,  or  even  of  the  cross-country  tour 
and  the  fixed  camp,  draw  constantly  upon  the  ingenuity 
and  rescourcefulness  of  the  boy  or  girl,  upon  initiative 
and  upon  self-reliance.  Far  from  the  markets  for 
standardized  goods  and  services,  one  must  either  find 
a  way  or  learn  to  do  without.  The  lessons  of  coopera- 
tion, forbearance  and  considerateness  are  no  less 
marked. 

Since  it  is  not  possible  for  most  families  to  manage 
the  combined  advantage  of  city  hfe  and  country  life 
for  their  children,  various  schemes  are  being  developed 
to  provide  the  opportunities  of  adequate  outdoor 
experience  to  increasing  numbers  of  children.  Besides 
a  considerable  variety  of  summer  camps  and  boarding 
schools  located  in  the  country,  there  are  country  day 
schools  in  the  neighborhood  of  many  a  large  city,  the 
city  playground,  the  play  school,  the  various  organiza- 
tions that  occupy  boys  or  girls  with  outdoor  activitie^s, 
and  the  excursions  that  are  possible  to  a  degree  in  almost 
every  school. 


130  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE  BASIC  NEED  FOR  CONTACT  WITH  THE  OUTDOORS 

a.  The  satisfaction  of  primitive  impulses 

b.  The  health  factors 

c.  The  strains  of  the  complex  city  life 

2.  THE  EDUCATIONAL  OPPORTUNITIES  OF  THE  OUTDOORS 

a.  Intellectual  aspects 

(1)  The  facts  of  nature 

Animate:  plants,  animals 

Inanimate:  weather,  stars,  land,  water 

(2)  The  solitude  and  silence  for  thinking 

(3)  The  constant  evidence  of  inexorable  law 

b.  Emotional  aspects 

(1)  The  moods  of  nature 

(2)  The  effect  of  vastness  on  sense  of  perspective 

and  poise 

(3)  Development  of  esthetic  interests 

c.  Socializing  aspects 

(1)  Cooperation  reduced  to  its  elements 

(2)  Character  effects  of  games 

(3)  Discovery  of  abihties  and  resources 

(4)  Development  of  self-reUance 

(5)  Demand  upon  initiative 

3.  SPECIAL   PROVISION   FOR   CITY    CHILDREN 

a.  Summer  camps 

b.  Special  organizations 

(1)  Scouts 

(2)  Woodcraft  League 

(3)  Campfire  Girls,  etc. 

c.  Playgrounds 

d.  Excursions 

e.  Country  day  school 

f .  Country  boarding  school 

g.  Play  schools 


THE  OUTDOOR  LIFE  131 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Curtis,  H.  S.  —  Education  through  Play: 

Chap.  VII,  "The  School  Playgrounds  of  American 

Cities"; 
Chap.  XII,  "Recreation  at  Summer  Schools"; 
Chap.  XIV,  "The  School  Camp" 

FoRBUSH,  W.  B.  —  The  Coming  Generation 

Hough,  Emerson  —  Out  of  Doors: 
Chap.  I  and  ad  lib. 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education: 

Chap.  XXVII,  "Nurture  in  the  Big  Injun  Age" 


31.     HOBBIES 

The  hobbies  of  adults  represent  the  more  highly 
individualized  remains  of  early  play  activities.  While 
we  all  desire  leisure,  either  as  an  escape  from  disagree- 
able tasks  or  simply  as  rest  from  excessive  labor,  how- 
ever pleasant,  comparatively  few  people  have  cultivated 
permanently  satisfying  interests  and  occupations  for 
their  leisure.  The  first  value  suggested  by  ''hobby"  is 
that  of  a  refuge  from  tedium  in  old  age  or  in  enforced 
idleness.  But  investigations  show  that  very  rarely 
does  an  adult  follow  a  spare-time  pursuit  that  was  not 
cultivated  in  childhood.  The  foundation  for  hobbies 
must  be  laid  before  adolescence,  although  there  may 
be  endless  refinement  and  speciahzation. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  the  child's  development,  a 
hobby  ordinarily  does  not  appear  very  early.  There 
should  be  a  wide  range  of  play  or  spontaneous  activity, 
for  it  is  through  such  activity  that  the  child  discovers 
the  world  and  himself.  Gradually  the  more  satisfying 
activities  will  receive  increasing  amounts  of  time  and 
effort.  It  is  important  only  that  speciahzation  be  not 
forced  too  early,  as  by  limiting  the  range  of  oppor- 
tunity, or  by  overdirection  from  adults,  and  that  the 
child  learn  to  do  whatever  he  does  with  zeal. 

As  a  rule  the  spirit  of  play  does  not  enter  into  the 
major  activities  of  life;  it  can  best  be  preserved  by 
hobbies.  They  should  therefore  be  cultivated  for  the 
values  which  play  yields.     The  pursuit  of  a  hobby 

132 


HOBBIES  133 

stimulates  effort,  opens  up  lines  of  interest  and  main- 
tains enthusiasms  when  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  work. 
It  serves  as  a  means  for  unifying  many  diverse  interests 
and  efforts,  and  to  widen  the  sympathies  by  giving 
experience  in  the  field  of  varied  pursuits  and  interests. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE   SOURCES   OF   HOBBIES 

a.  Spare-time  activities  of  children 

b.  Influence  of  companions,  reading,  local  esteem  for 

various  pursuits,  casual  factors 

c.  Gradual  differentiation 

d.  Impress  of  individuality 

2.  THE   VALUE    OF   HOBBIES 

For  the  child 

a.  The    educational    values    of    play    as    spontaneous 

activity  and  interest 

(1)  A  means  for  becoming  acquainted  with  sur- 

roundings and  with  his  own  capacities  and 
Umitations 

(2)  A  means  for  acquiring  control  of  surroundings 

and  of  himself 

(3)  A  means  for  adjusting  to  other  human  beings 

b.  As  experience  with  variety  of  materials  and  forces 

(1)  A  means  for  unifying  knowledge  and  skill 

(2)  A  means  for  acquiring  specialized  expertness 

c.  As  absorbing  interest 

(1)  A  source  of  stimulation  to  effort 

(2)  A  source  of  insight  to  other  people's  interests 
For  the  older  person 

a.  A  source  of  enthusiasm  when  most  activities  have 

become  routinized 

b.  A  bond  of  interest  with  other  enthusiasts 

c.  A  helpful  source  of  stimulation 

d.  A  profitable  occupation  for  free  time 


134  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

3.      THE   NEEDS    OF    CHILDREN 

a.  Opportunity  for  widest  contacts 

b.  Encouragement  to  try  out  whatever  is  humanly  in- 

teresting and  socially  tolerable 

c.  Approval  of  and  sympathy  for  early  enthusiasms 

d.  Avoidance  of  early  specialization 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  75-78,  219-222 

Non-Technical 
BoNSER,  Fredrick  G.  —  School  Work  and  Spare  Time 


32.     CHILDREN'S  BOOKS  AND  READING 

Books  constitute  for  most  children  one  of  the  most 
potent  sources  of  inspiration  and  guidance.  Their 
selection  is  important  at  every  stage,  because  it  will 
determine  both  how  far  children  will  continue  to  resort 
to  books,  as  well  as  the  kinds  of  influence  the  books 
will,  for  the  time  being,  exert. 

Books  yield  not  only  the  information  which  they 
record,  but  moral  guidance  and  stimulus,  interpretation 
and  insight  into  life,  vicarious  adventure  and  pastime. 
Yet  we  must  not  expect  every  book  to  yield  all  of  these 
values.  It  is  sufficient  if  a  given  book  does  only  one  or 
another  of  the  many  useful  things  that  a  book  can  do. 

The  desirabiUty  of  a  book  will  depend  not  upon  the 
number  of  different  tasks  that  it  performs,  but  on  how 
well  it  meets  its  main  purpose.  The  information  in  a 
book  should  be  rehable.  The  sentiment  it  breathes 
should  be  sound,  the  text  should  be  well  written,  and 
its  style  and  illustrations  should  be  in  good  taste. 
From  the  viewpoint  of  a  particular  child  a  book  should 
be  interesting,  it  should  supply  his  needs,  and  it  should 
address  him  on  his  proper  intellectual  level. 

These  specifications,  however,  do  not  imply  a  static 
test  of  good  books,  nor  the  possibility  of  selecting 
"best"  books.  The  growing  child  is  normally  shifting 
his  interests;  what  was  a  very  interesting  book  yester- 
day, is  to-day  stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable.  His  intel- 
lectual growth  requires  a  graded  body  of  reading. 

135 


136  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Needs  and  interests  change  with  the  seasons  and  with 
fashions.  Events  of  local  or  of  temporary  importance 
will  call  for  a  line  of  reading  far  from  universal  or 
permanent.  Historical  celebrations  or  other  special 
occasions  will  determine  what  is  best  for  the  time  and 
place. 

Further  modifications  of  the  good  as  well  as  of  the 
best  will  arise  from  the  fact  that  changes  are  constantly 
taking  place  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  the  child's 
reading  should  keep  him  measurably  in  sight  of  what 
will  concern  his  contemporaries  in  the  years  to  come 
and  not  restrict  him  to  what  startled  his  ancestors. 
Moreover,  there  are  constant  developments  in  social 
and  public  life  which  reflect  themselves  in  fiction  as 
well  as  in  books  of  travel,  biography,  poetry,  and  even  of 
a  technical  sort,  as  in  books  on  means  of  transportation 
and  communication.  The  child's  reading,  however, 
should  not  be  confined  to  the  new  any  more  than  to  the 
old.  Acquaintance  with  certain  classics  is  a  necessary 
part  of  the  individual's  equipment.  Folk  and  fairy 
tales  of  many  peoples  not  only  enrich  later  reading 
and  supply  satisfying  nurture  to  the  child's  imagination, 
but  they  furnish  a  valuable  introduction  to  the  customs 
and  thinking  of  far-away  peoples,  thus  meeting  the 
normal  travel  interest.  It  nevertheless  remains  true 
that  many  of  the  fairy  tales  need  careful  editing  to 
make  them  of  greatest  value  to  our  children. 

In  increasing  numbers  new  books  are  forthcoming 
that  have  the  merits  of  the  old  with  certain  advantages 
that  the  old  can  never  have.  This  is  particularly  true 
in  the  development  of  imaginative  stories,  which  are 
of  such  great  value  to  young  children.    When  fairy 


CHILDREN'S  BOOKS  AND  READING  137 

tales  were  alone  available  in  this  field  they  were  used 
and  preferred  to  other  types  of  literature.  But  the 
application  of  keener  insight  into  the  child's  mind  to  the 
writing  of  special  books  for  children  will  gradually 
replace  certain  of  the  older  fairy  tales,  much  to  the 
benefit  of  the  children. 

In  the  purchase  of  books  for  children  we  meet  the 
constant  temptation  of  sets  or  series  which  offer  to 
save  us  the  trouble  of  selecting  what  is  worth  while  or 
especially  desirable.  These  sets,  however,  assume 
standardized  children,  standardized  needs,  standardized 
"best"  reading.  Their  purchase  does  indeed  save 
considerable  effort,  but  it  also  cuts  off  an  avenue  of 
mutual  interest  between  parent  and  child,  since  it 
delegates  and  dismisses  a  function  which  should  be 
continuously  exercised  —  that  of  deciding  from  time 
to  time  what  is  most  valuable  for  this  particular  child 
in  the  present  circumstances.  The  complete  set, 
moreover,  will  be  sure  to  contain  a  considerable  amount 
of  dead  material,  and  its  installation  loses  the  stimulat- 
ing value  of  novelty,  which  each  separate  book  could 
bring  with  it. 

Even  in  the  case  of  books  intended  chiefly  as  sources 
of  information,  it  is  better  to  get  the  child  accustomed 
to  consult  specialized  sources  of  information  and 
authoritative  encyclopedia  rather  than  diluted  com- 
pendia of  universal  knowledge,  written  down  and 
frequently  distorted  in  the  effort  to  adapt  it  to  immature 
minds.  There  is  a  certain  air  of  finality  in  all  such 
compilations  which  leaves  an  undesirable  intellectual 
complacency  with  the  young  reader. 

There  are  no  doubt  many  children  who  can  get 


138  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

nothing  from  the  printed  page  unless  the  matter  is 
written  down  to  them ;  but  we  should  at  least  give  every 
child  an  opportunity  to  sample  genuine  literature  within 
his  comprehension  until  his  limitations  disclose  them- 
selves. For  the  adolescent  especially  is  it  desirable  to 
provide  an  introduction  to  serious  fiction  rather  than 
permit  a  continued  indulgence  in  machine-made  ro- 
mance and  adventure  that  help  only  to  fix  the  outlook 
and  the  appreciation  at  childish  levels. 

The  child  should  early  begin  the  slow  accumulation 
of  his  own  library,  and  at  the  same  time  learn  to  read 
books  borrowed  from  libraries  and  other  sources,  for 
it  is  well  to  acquire  a  discrimination  that  distinguishes 
between  books  that  are  to  be  read  and  dismissed,  and 
books  that  are  to  remain  permanent  resources. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE   VALUE    OF   READING 

a.  Communication  from  those  remote  in  space  and  time 

b.  Source  of  information 

c.  Interpretation  and  meanings;  aid  to  insight 

d.  Moral  guidance 

e.  Inspiration  and  stimulus 

f.  Pastime,  recreation 

g.  Vicarious  adventure  and  experience 

2.  THE   CRITERIA    OF   BOOKS 

a.  Information  must  be  reliable 

b.  Sentiment  must  be  sound 

c.  Taste  must  be  good 

d.  Style  and  diction 

3.  THE  RELATION  OF  BOOKS  TO  THE  CHILD 

a.  Book  must  be  interesting 
(1)  Individual  variation 


CHILDREN'S  BOOKS  AND  READING  139 

(2)  Shifting  interests 

Change  with  age 

Local  and  passing  occasions 

(3)  Arousing  interests 

b.  Book  must  meet  child's  needs 

c.  Book  must  be  suited  to  intellectual  level 

d.  Books  for  adolescents 

e.  Danger  of  reading  as  indulgence  and  withdrawal  from 

reality 

4.  THE    SELECTION    OF   BOOKS 

a.  Need  for  classics,  fairy  tales,  fables,  etc. 

b.  Need  for  the  new 

(1)  Science,  discovery,  the  arts 

(2)  Development  of  public  relations 

c.  Eclectic  series  vs.  single  books 

d.  Compendia  and  encyclopedia 

e.  Selection  a  continuous  process 

5.  BOOKS   AND   LIBRARIES 

a.  Advantage  of  owning  books 

b.  Need  for  libraries  and  borrowed  books 


REFERENCES 

Popular 
Abler,  Felix  —  Moral  Instruction  of  Children:  64-105 

Brill,  A.  A.  —  Fundamental  Conceptions  of  Psychoanalysis: 
Chap.  XII,  "Fairy  Tales  and  Artistic  Conceptions" 

Bryant,  Sara  Cone  —  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children 

CoE,  F,  E.  —  First  Book  of  Stories  for  the  Story-Teller 

Field,  Walter  T.  —  Fingerposts  to  Children's  Reading 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters-:    192-197 

Hunt,  Clara  W.  —  What  Shall  We  Read  to  Children? 

Lowe,  Orton  —  Literature  for  Children 


140  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Lyman,  Edna  —  Story  Telling:    What  to  Tell  and  How  to 
Tell  It 

Macy,  John  —  A  Guide  to  Reading 

Moore,  Annie  C.  —  Roads  to  Childhood 

Moses,  Montrose  J.  —  Children's  Books  and  Reading 

Olcott,  Frances  J.  —  The  Children's  Reading: 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Use  of  Fairy  Tales"; 
Chap.  VII,  "The  Use  of  Fables"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Supplementary  Remarks  on  Fables"; 
Chap.  IX,  "Selected  Stories  from  the  Bible"; 
Chap.  X,  "The  Odyssey  and  the  Ihad" 

Sharp,  Dallas  L.  —  Education  for  Individuality: 
Atlantic  Monthly,  June,  1920 

The  Federation  for  Child    Study  —  A  Selected  List  of 
Books  for  Children  (Revised  annually) 


33.    ARTS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD 

Instead  of  thinking  of  "art"  as  something  exclusive, 
reserved  for  the  exceptionally  favored  few,  we  must 
think  of  it  as  a  common  human  heritage  limited  only 
by  our  varying  capacities  to  appreciate  and  to  create 
beauty.  From  earliest  infancy  the  child  manifests 
satisfactions  resulting  from  mere  sensation,  such  as 
loud  sounds,  bright  flashes  of  hght  or  color,  touching  of 
the  skin  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  From  such 
simple  satisfactions  with  simple  stimuli,  there  gradually 
emerges  a  progressive  discrimination ;  all  sounds  are  no 
longer  alike,  colors  become  differentiated,  and  forms  of 
distinct  objects  bring  varying  amounts  of  satisfaction. 
The  basic  principles  of  art,  the  characteristics  of  what 
all  people  deem  "beautiful,"  can  be  felt  long  before 
they  can  be  formulated,  or  even  before  the  philosopher's 
formulation  can  be  understood.  But  the  appreciation 
of  harmony,  as  unity  within  variety,  the  satisfaction 
with  fitness  or  adaptation,  and  with  economy,  are 
present  with  all  normal  children. 

Interpretation  as  an  intellectual  process  begins 
usually  with  the  attempt  to  analyze  or  evaluate  more 
complex  art  forms,  such  as  poetry  or  drama;  in  the 
development  of  critical  literature  the  treatment  of  these 
and  painting,  sculpture  and  architecture  precede  the 
interpretation  of  music  and  the  dance.  In  so  far  as 
"interpretation"  is  wholly  or  chiefly  esthetic,  it  pro- 
ceeds from  a  sympathetic  imitation  of  the  model  and  is 

141 


142  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

found  for  all  the  arts  both  at  a  relatively  low  stage  of 
culture  and  at  an  early  stage  in  the  child's  development. 

For  the  development  of  the  child's  creative  im- 
pulses, there  must  be  first  of  all  ample  freedom  for  his 
activities.  This  means  of  course  more  than  merely 
leaving  him  to  himself,  for  it  involves  time  and  place 
and  materials  with  which  to  work  —  or  play.  It 
means  also  the  avoidance  of  overwhelming  the  child 
with  an  excess  of  conventionalized  forms,  whether 
in  the  way  of  nursery  rhymes  or  of  pictures  to  copy 
or  models  to  mold.  In  the  second  place,  there  must  be 
the  opportunity  to  acquire  an  understanding  of  what 
may  be  called  the  symbolism  of  art,  the  fact  that  one 
thing  may  represent  another,  and  may  be  legitimately 
used  for  this  purpose.  We  must  not  insist  upon  too 
great  literalness  or  "veracity"  in  the  child's  inventions. 
Beauty,  like  truth,  takes  on  a  multitude  of  forms  — ■ 
and  is  not  always  naked.  There  must  be  stimulation 
to  effort,  chiefly  through  quiet  encouragement  and 
"constructive  criticism,"  which  consists  apparently 
of  stressing  the  good  points  in  the  child's  work  and 
ignoring  the  other  ones.  With  broadening  experience 
and  the  discovery  of  new  possibilities  in  theme  and 
medium,  he  learns  his  own  resources  as  well  as  his 
limitations.  Instruction  and  inspiration  must  come  in 
accordance  with  the  talents. 

On  the  side  of  appreciation,  both  the  home  and  the 
school  can  do  much  more  than  is  commonly  attempted. 
The  influences,  commercial  and  others,  that  tend  to 
degrade  popular  standards  of  taste  need  to  be  recognized 
and  systematically  combatted  by  those  who  value 
higher  standards  for  their  humanizing  and  socializing 


ARTS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  143 

effects  as  well  as  for  the  personal  satisfactions  they  yield. 
The  parents  who  confine  their  efforts  to  saving  their 
own  children  from  those  degrading  influences  may  find 
in  the  end  that  they  have  merely  oversensitized  the 
chosen  few  while  the  multiplication  of  ughness  continues 
unabated.  The  influence  of  the  furniture  and  dress 
and  decorations  in  the  child's  surroundings,  the  subtle 
suggestiveness  of  everyday  comment  and  criticism, 
the  sights  in  the  street,  in  pubhc  places,  in  museums, 
hold  great  possibihties.  With  the  older  child,  these 
influences  may  well  be  supplemented  by  lectures  and 
literature. 

OUTLINE 

1.  ESTHETIC    FEELINGS 

a.  Satisfaction  from  mere  sensation 

b.  Discrimination,  a  process  of  growth 

c.  Esthetic  response  before  the  intellectual 

2.  GRADING    OF   THE    ARTS 

a.  On  side  of  creation 

b.  On  side  of  appreciation 

c.  On  side  of  interpretation 

3.  DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    CREATIVE    IMPULSES 

a.  Freedom 

b.  Understanding  of  symbolism 

c.  Stimulation  of  effort 

d.  Inspiration  and  instruction 
6.  Mastery  of  technique 

4.  DEVELOPMENT   OF    APPRECIATION 

a.  Influence  of  surroundings 

b.  Social  aspects 

c.  Suggestions  and  firuidance 

d.  Use  of  museums 

e.  Instruction  and  literature 


144  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  198-202 

Hall  and  Others  —  Art  Museums  and  Schools: 

"  Museums  of  Art  and  Teachers  of  History,"  67-94 

HuRLL,  E,  M. — How  to  Show  Pictures  to  Children:    7-14; 
Chap.  Ill,  "How  the  Picture  Is  Made"; 
Chap.  IV,  "How  to  Make  Pictures  Tell  Stories"; 
Chap.  VI,  "Practical  Suggestions  to  the  Mother  for 

the  Child's  Picture  Education"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Animal  Pictures"; 
Chap.  X,  "Story  Pictures" 

Scott,  C.  A.  —  Social  Education: 
Chap.  XI,  "Fine  Art" 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child:   341-345,  373-380 

WiNTERBURN,  F.  A.  —  The  Mother  in  Education: 

Chap.  XII,  "Self -Expression  Through  Drawing"; 
Chap.  XX,  "vEsthetic  Education" 

Non-Technical 

Balliet,  T.  M.  —  The  Domain  of  Art  Education: 

National  Education  Association  Addresses  and  Pro- 
ceedings, 1916,  493-496 

Cornell,  G.  A.  —  Art  in  the  Kindergarten: 

National  Education  Association  Addresses  and  Pro- 
ceedings, 1916,  307-310 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Youth:  42-45 

Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood: 

Chap.  IX,  "The  Child  as  Artist" 


ARTS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  145 

Technical 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education:   Second  Series,  34, 
74,  109,  151,  163,  231,  271,  314,  352,  388 

Dewey,  J.  —  Psychology: 

Chap.  XI,  ''Sensuous  Feeling"; 
Chap.  XV,  ''.Esthetic  FeeUng" 

Pfister,  O.  —  The  Psychoanalytic  Method:  388-404 

WooDWORTH,  R.  S.  —  Psychology:   182-183,  512-517 


34.    MUSIC 

Society  desires  not  only  that  children  shall  learn 
certain  useful  things,  but  that  they  shall  become  men 
and  women  of  a  certain  type  of  personality.  In  select- 
ing educational  material,  therefore,  regard  is  had  not 
only  to  the  value  of  what  is  learned  for  general  and 
special  use,  but  also  to  the  effect  it  may  have  upon 
emotions,  intellect,  and  character.  With  this  aim  in 
mind,  music  in  the  educational  development  of  the  child 
is  a  large  factor  affecting  the  emotional  life.  Modern 
pedagogy  and  psychology  advocate  stimulating  expres- 
sion, and  sound  a  warning  note  against  suppression 
and  repression. 

The  experience  of  music  should  precede  instruction 
about  music  or  the  study  of  an  instrument.  People 
sang  and  danced  for  thousands  of  years  before  there 
was  any  written  record  of  their  music.  A  child  who 
has  learned  a  large  number  of  beautiful  melodies  "by 
ear"  and  whose  rhythmic  sense  has  been  developed  by 
marching,  skipping,  dancing,  and  rhythmic  movements 
in  time  to  music,  has  a  fund  of  musical  experience  that 
will  be  invaluable  to  him  later  on,  whether  he  is  to  play 
an  instrument  or  not. 

Every  child  can  and  should  be  taught  to  listen 
happily  and  intelligently  to  music  in  so  far  as  his  native 
capacity  will  permit,  just  as  he  should  be  taught  to 
appreciate  literature,  whether  he  is  going  to  write 
books  or  not. 

146 


MUSIC  147 

OUTLINE 

1.  IN   THE   HOME 

a.  For  the  young  child 

(1)  Hearing  and  singing  simple  folk  songs  and  nur- 

sery rhymes 

(2)  Dramatizing  songs  and  nursery  rhymes 

(3)  Singing  games 

(4)  Creating  atmosphere  of  joy,  and  allowing  child 

to  express  himself 

(5)  The  early  appeal  to  and  development  of  the 

sense  of  melody  and  rhythm,  the  two  strong- 
est elements  of  music 

b.  For  the  entire  family 

(1)  Singing  beautiful  songs  in  unison  and  in  parts 

(2)  The  great  power  of  music  as  a  social  force 

(3)  The  unifying  effect  of  creating  something  beau- 

tiful together 

2.  IN  THE  SCHOOL 

a.  Psychological  function 

(1)  To  arouse,  express,  and  convey  feelings 

(2)  The  educative  power  of  enjoyment 

b.  Social  function 

Group  participation;  chorus,  school  orchestra,  folk 
dancing 

c.  Utilization  of  music  in  festivals 

(1)  Music  in  the  play 

(2)  Music  as  a  framework  for  the  play 

d.  Teaching  the  appreciation  of  music 

e.  School  credit 

(1)  Allowance  by  the  school  of  time  for  practicing 

done  at  home 

(2)  Credit  given  by  the  school  for  standardized 

instrumental  work 

f.  Standard  tests  for  musical  capacity 

3.  INSTRUMENTAL   TEACHING 

a.  At  what  age  to  begin 

Dependent  on  the  child's  musical  ability  and  in- 
terest 


148  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

b.  Individual  lessons  at  home  or  in  a  school  of  music 

Advantages  of  group  study  and  of  constant  playing 
for  others 

c.  Practicing 

(1)  The  deadening  effect  of  endless  repetitions 

(2)  The  necessity  of  keeping  the  mind  alert  and 

active 

(3)  Reading  and  memorizing 

(4)  The  joy  of  reading  music  akin  to  the  joy  of 

reading  books 

d.  Modern  methods  of  procedure 

4.      VALUE    OF   MECHANICAL   MUSICAL   INSTRUMENTS 

a.  Player  piano,  victrola,  etc, 

(1)  A  means  of  creating  a  taste  for  and  acquaint- 

ance with  the  best  music 

(2)  Careful  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  rec- 

ords, the  same  as  applied  in  the  choice  of 
reading  matter  for  our  children 


REFERENCES 
Popular 
Cady,  Calvin  B.  —  Music  Education 
Farnsworth,  C.  H.  —  How  to  Study  Music 
Mason,  D.  G.  —  A  Child's  Guide  to  Music 
Seymour,  Harriet  A.  —  What  Music  Can  Do  For  You 
(All  contain  good  Bibliographies) 

Non-Technical 
Smith,  Hannah  —  Music  and  How  It  Came  to  be  What  It  is 

SuRETTE,  T.  W.  —  Music  and  Life: 

Chap.  II,  "Music  for  Children"; 

Chap.  V,  "The  Opera"; 

Chap.  VI-VII,  "The  Symphony" 


MUSIC  149 

Far  the  Child 
Bacon,  M.  S.  —  Songs  that  Every  Child  Should  Know 
BuRCHENAL,  ELIZABETH  —  Folk  Donces 
Davison  and  Surette  —  Rote  Songs 
Elliot,  J.  W.  —  Mother  Goose  Songs 
Hadow,  W.  H.  —  Songs  of  the  British  Islands 
Sharp,  Cecil  J.  —  Folk  Songs,  Chanteys,  and  Singing  Games 

For  the  Home 

Bach,  J.  S,  —  Chorales  (Selected  by  Bertha  Elsmith  and 
T.  W.  Surette) 
Sacred  Songs  (Arranged  by  Wullner) 

Fink,  Henry  T.,  Editor  —  Fifty  Master   Songs   by  Twenty 
Composers 

Whitehead,  J.  R.,  Editor  —  Folk  Songs  and  Other  Songs  for 
Children 

For  the  School 

Chubb  and  Associates  —  Festivals  and  Plays: 

Pt.  II,  "Music  in  the  Festival"  (Peter  W. 
Dykema).  (Demonstrating  how  to  use  music  in 
connection  with  festivals,  with  full  bibliography 
of  music  and  songs) 

Kedson  and  Neal  —  English  Folk  Song  and  Dance 

(Giving  the  origin  of  the  folk  song  and  its  evolution 
with  a  full  bibliography  upon  English  Folk  Music. 
The  second  half  of  the  book  treats  of  the  English 
Folk  Dance) 

Page,  Kate  Stearns  —  Robin  Hood 

(A  short  play  introducing  English  folk  songs  and 
dances  of  the  Robin  Hood  period) 


150  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Sharp  Cecil  J.  —  An  Introduction  to  the  English  Country 
Dance 
(The  first  part  of  the  book  gives  a  sketch  oi  the 
history  of  the  country  dance  and  a  description  of 
the  steps.  The  second  half  consists  of  directions 
for  special  dances.    Pubhshed  in  parts) 


35.    HEREDITY 

With  respect  to  every  point  that  distinguishes  a 
person  from  his  fellows,  the  most  frequent  question 
asked  is  whether  it  is  a  native  trait,  or  the  result  of 
training  or  experience,  or  of  other  external  influence 
acting  during  the  course  of  development.  From  a 
biological  viewpoint,  what  is  inherited  is  the  total  of 
potentialities,  which  can  manifest  themselves  only  in 
the  course  of  development  under  suitable  conditions; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  effect  of  these  conditions 
depends  in  the  last  analysis  upon  the  "inheritance"  of 
the  organism. 

There  are  practical  problems  whose  solution  depends 
upon  recognizing  both  the  capacities  of  the  child  and 
the  bearing  of  the  manifold  external  influences  upon  the 
development  of  these  capacities.  Thus,  on  the  physical 
side,  a  child  of  a  tall  strain  has  the  capacity  to  grow 
taller  than  his  companions,  but  his  attainment  of 
maximum  stature  depends  upon  suitable  feeding  and 
other  environmental  factors.  And  these  same  condi- 
tions will  enable  another  child  to  attain  his  maximum 
development  which  will,  however,  be  measurably  less 
than  that  of  the  first  child.  There  is  evidence  to  show 
not  only  that  mental  peculiarities  depend  upon  the 
structure  of  the  nervous  and  other  systems  of  the  body 
(particularly  muscles  and  glands)  but  that,  wherever 
they  can  be  directly  observed,  they  follow  the  same 
forms  of  transmission  from  generation  to  generation  as 

161 


152  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

do  the  physical  traits.  This  principle  holds  of  the 
emotional  powers,  of  the  temper  or  disposition,  and  of 
any  special  talent.  The  individual  at  any  given 
moment  represents  the  result  of  the  interaction  of  all 
of  his  inheritance  and  all  of  his  individual  experience, 
whether  favorable  or  unfavorable. 

The  characters  present  in  the  offspring  of  two 
parents  are  found  in  some  cases  to  lie  midway  between 
the  corresponding  characters  of  the  parents;  but  in 
many  cases  the  resemblance  is  altogether  to  one  paront 
or  altogether  to  the  other  parent.  Thus  certain 
characters  show  "dominance,"  as  of  dark  eyes  as  against 
blue  eyes.  In  succeeding  generations  the  children  of 
dark-eyed  offspring  of  mixed  parentage  will  "segregate," 
some  having  blue  eyes  and  some  dark.  The  presence 
of  more  or  less  complete  dominance  with  subsequent 
segregation  has  been  observed  with  respect  to  hundreds 
of  characters  in  various  plants  and  animals,  including 
man. 

Each  pair  of  contrasting  characters  present  in  the 
lineage  goes  on  combining  and  splitting  up  in  succeeding 
generations,  altogether  independently  of  other  pairs  of 
characters.  Each  character  thus  behaves  as  an  inde- 
pendent unit.  As  a  result  we  find  that  each  child 
resembles  both  parents  (or  both  strains  of  ancestry) 
not  by  having  each  trait  in  some  condition  inter- 
mediate between  the  conditions  of  the  two  parents,  but 
by  having  some  characters  altogether  like  those  of  the 
mother's  side,  and  other  characters  altogether  like  those 
of  the  father's  side. 

There  are  certain  characters  in  human  beings  as 
well  as  among  other  organisms,  which  seem  to  result 


HEREDITY  153 

from  the  presence  in  the  inheritance  of  two  or  more 
transmitted  factors.  As  a  result  the  individual  shows 
peculiarities  not  to  be  recognized  in  either  line  of 
ancestors  (except  where  the  factors  and  their  mani- 
festations are  known) ;  and  as  a  further  result  there  is 
failure  to  transmit  this  combination  (because  of  segrega- 
tion) to  future  generations.  This  probably  explains 
why  ''genius"  is  not  only  rare,  but  also  never  repeats 
itself. 

The  physical  basis  for  the  facts  of  heredity  is  fairly 
well  understood,  and  is  found  in  the  structure  and 
behavior  of  the  nuclear  matter  in  germ  cells. 

Because  of  the  early  separation  during  development 
of  the  living  matter  that  is  to  form  the  germinal  or 
reproductive  protoplasm,  from  that  which  is  to  form 
the  body  of  the  individual,  it  becomes  impossible  to 
influence  the  inheritance  of  the  progeny  through  the 
training  or  experience  of  the  parents,  although  the 
developing  embryo,  as  well,  perhaps,  as  the  germ  cell, 
may  be  affected  by  disease,  overwork  or  underfeeding. 
There  is  thus  no  practical  reality  underlying  the  con- 
cepts ''maternal  impression,"  "transmission  of  modi- 
fications," etc. 

The  practical  application  of  an  understanding  of  the 
facts  of  heredity,  so  far  as  the  individual  is  concerned, 
will  be  directed  to  discovering  native  capacities  worth 
cultivating,  native  limitations  that  need  compensating 
through  the  cultivation  of  other  traits,  and  the  provid- 
ing of  an  environment  that  will  furnish  the  most  favor- 
able opportunity  for  healthy  development.  So  far  as 
the  community  is  concerned,  there  is  need  for  recogniz- 
ing that  certain  tj^es  or  strains  of  the  population  are 


154  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

more  desirable  than  others,  and  for  finding  means  of 
encouraging  the  propagation  of  one,  and  restraining  or 
preventing  the  multipHcation  of  the  other. 


OUTLINE 

1.  VARIATION 

a.  Kinds  of  variation 

(1)  Physical 

(2)  Mental 

b.  Source  of  variation 

(1)  Nature 

(2)  Nurture 

2.  THE   LAWS    OF   HEREDITY 

a.  Dominance 

b.  Segregation 

c.  Unit  characters 

d.  Multiple  factors 

3.  THE    BIOLOGY    OF   HEREDITY 

a.  The  physical  bearers  of  character 

b.  Chromosome  reduction 

c.  FertiKzation  and  the  combining  of  characters 

4.  SPECIAL    PROBLEMS 

a.  Prenatal  influence 

b.  Transmission  of  modifications 

c.  Inheritance  of  disease 

5.  APPLICATIONS 

a.  Individual 

(1)  Discover  limits  and  potentialities 

(2)  Furnish  environment  favoring  desirable  traits 

(3)  Avoid  environment  favoring  undesirable  traits 

b.  Social 

(1)  Principles  of  eugenics 

(2)  Cultivation  of  taste  in  personality 


HEREDITY  155 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

CoNKLiN,  E.  G.  —  Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Develop- 
ment of  Man: 
Chap.  V,  "The  Control  of  Heredity:   Eugenics" 

Downing,  E.  R.  —  The  Third  and  Fourth  Generation 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  XIV,  "Heredity  and  Environment" 

Jennings,  H.  L.  —  Suggestions  of  Modern  Science  Concerning 
Education: 
"The  Biology  of  Children  in   Relation  to  Educa- 
tion," 1-17 

Non-Technical 

Coulter  and  Others  —  Heredity  and  Eugenics: 

Chap.  I,   "Recent  Development  in  Heredity  and 

Evolution"; 
Chap.  Vni,  "  The  Inheritance  of  Physical  and  Men- 
tal Traits"; 
Chap.  IX,  "The  Geography  of  Man  in  Relation  to 
Eugenics" 

Technical 

Davenport,  C.  B.  —  Nomadism,  or  the  Wandering  Impulse, 
with  Special  Reference  to  Heredity 
Violent  Temper  and  Its  Inheritance 

East  and  Jones  —  Inbreeding  and  Outbreeding: 
Chap.  I,  "Introduction"; 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Mechanism  of  Heredity"; 
Chap.  XII,  "The  Effect  on  the  Individual"; 
Chap.  XIII,  "The  Intermingling  of  Races  and  Na- 
tional Stamina" 


156  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

GuYER,  M.  —  Being  Well  Born: 
Chap.  I,  "Heredity"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Mendelism"; 

Chap.  IV,  "Mendelism  in  Man,"  29-60,   121-128, 
138-163,  178-194 

Morgan,  T,  H.  —  The  Physical  Basis  of  Heredity: 
Chap.  I,  "Introduction"; 
Chap.  IV,  "Mendel's  Second  Law"; 
Chap.  XVI,  "Chromosomes  as  Bearers  of  Hered- 
itary Units"; 
Chap.  XVII,  "Cytoplasmic  Inheritance" 


36.    SEX  EDUCATION 

Entirely  apart  from  the  function  of  reproduction, 
the  presence  of  the  sex  organs  in  the  body  of  the  boy 
or  girl  gives  rise  through  the  internal  secretions  to  a 
vast  variety  of  impulses  that  in  themselves  have  no 
obvious  relation  either  to  reproduction  of  the  species  or 
to  other  matters  commonly  thought  of  as  constituting 
"sex."  The  self-assertive  impulses  as  well  as  the 
altruistic  ones,  the  interests  that  make  possible  art  and 
science  and  religion  as  well  as  the  most  perverse 
degradations  of  the  human  spirit,  seem  to  arise  from 
the  sex  constitution  of  the  growing  child.  The  same 
impulses  resting  in  the  basic  fact  of  sex  are  capable  on 
the  one  hand  of  the  loftiest  reaches  of  spiritual  attain- 
ment, or,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  lowest  depths  of 
bestiality  and  perversion. 

Knowledge  of  these  relations  between  his  spiritual 
possibilities  and  the  developing  sex  nature  may  well  be 
withheld  from  the  growing  child;  but  sooner  or  later 
ignorance  becomes  a  source  of  danger,  not  alone  to  the 
individual  himself,  but  more  especially  perhaps  to  the 
younger  people  whose  development  is  in  the  hands  of 
ignorant  men  and  women.  There  is  the  shock  that 
comes  when  the  child,  having  been  compelled  by  the 
taboos  of  respectables  and  by  the  depravity  of  his 
irresponsible  informants  to  consider  sex  as  something 
base,  suddenly  learns  that  his  own  parents  have  been 
defiled  by  it.     There  is  the  danger  of  perversion  when 

157 


158  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

the  upsurging  desires  can  find  no  satisfactions,  either  in 
the  biologically  normal  though  socially  impermissible 
sex  relations,  or  in  diversions  into  substitute  interests 
and  activities.  There  is  the  danger  of  mental  disturb- 
ance when  the  repressed  powers  produce  strains  for 
which  the  boy  or  girl  can  find  no  release.  There  is  the 
danger  of  seduction  by  older  unscrupulous  persons  of 
either  sex;  and  there  is  the  danger  of  the  venereal 
diseases  with  their  train  of  calamity  and  tragedy. 

These  dangers  of  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  or  of  his  guardians  call  for  more  serious 
attention  to  the  manifold  unconscious  manifestations 
of  sex  in  the  child.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  child 
is  to  be  informed  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  of 
all  that  the  race  has  learned.  It  means,  in  the  first 
place,  the  provision  of  conditions  that  are  favorable  to 
the  healthy  growth  of  the  body,  and  the  healthy  growth 
of  the  spirit,  which  is  in  reality  the  healthy  unfolding 
of  the  whole  organism,  inclusive  of  sex.  It  means  the 
provision  of  exercise  and  cleanliness  and  games,  and  the 
establishment  of  habits  and  interest  that  will  continue 
exercise  and  cleanliness  and  playing,  as  a  part  of  the 
day  by  day  life  through  the  years.  It  means  the 
cultivation  of  creative  activities  and  habits  that  may 
be  retained  through  life  as  channels  for  the  partial 
drawing  away  of  the  transformed  or  sublimated  sex 
impulse,  of  which  the  normal,  healthy  boy  or  girl, 
man  or  woman,  has  much  more  than  is  needed  for  the 
fulfilling  of  the  sexual  function  of  reproduction,  in 
modern  life.  It  means  the  cultivation  of  interest  in 
music  and  art  and  literature,  in  travel  and  adventure, 
in  the  pursuit  of  science  or  of  social  reform,  or  of  some 


SEX  EDUCATION  159 

growing  hobby.  The  rehgious  observances  that  men 
and  women  retain  through  the  years  furnish,  apart  from 
any  aid  they  may  give  to  strengthen  the  resolution,  or 
the  resistance  to  temptation,  a  safety  valve  for  the 
emotional  strain  set  up  by  the  internal  secretions  of  the 
sex  glands.  To  the  extent  of  each  individual's  capacity, 
there  is  need  of  opportunity  to  develop  his  idealism 
and  his  various  partial  impulses,  such  as  curiosity, 
pugnacity,  acquisitiveness,  exhibitionism,  etc.,  to  the 
highest  possible  level. 

This  is  sex  education  of  an  implicit  out  very  neces- 
sary kind.  We  may  prefer  to  call  it  recreation,  or 
character  training,  which  indeed  it  is;  but  it  is  important 
for  the  trainer  of  character  to  understand  that  he  is 
dealing  with  forces  that  have  their  source  and  their 
end  in  the  sex  nature  of  the  child.  It  is  further  neces- 
sary, however,  to  give  the  child,  from  time  to  time,  in 
proportion  to  his  ability  to  understand,  certain  explicit 
information.  The  responsibility  for  this  rests  primarily 
with  the  home,  first  because  the  needed  instruction  must 
begin  long  before  the  child  is  ready  for  school,  and 
second  because  through  furnishing  the  information  as 
needed  the  parent  establishes  a  line  of  mutual  under- 
standing and  confidence  that  is  otherwise  maintained 
only  with  difficulty.  By  answering  the  child's  ques- 
tions as  they  arise,  as  to  the  source  of  babies  or  puppies, 
by  introducing  from  time  to  time  more  circumstantial 
detail  about  the  facts  of  sex  in  plants  and  animals,  and 
gradually  about  the  various  aspects  of  sex  in  human 
life,  the  parent  can  bring  the  child  by  slow  stages  to 
both  knowledge  and  understanding,  to  both  facts  and 
feelings  that  make  for  a  wholesome  attitude  and  for 


160  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

more  certain  self-control.  The  education  should  in- 
clude not  merely  the  physical  facts  of  reproduction,  the 
particular  sex  manifestations  of  both  sexes,  sexual 
diseases,  etc.,  but  also  cover  the  sordid  low  standards 
which  make  for  prostitution,  illegitimacy,  and  then  lead 
on  and  up  to  the  meaning  of  marriage  in  its  various 
aspects  and  highest  ideals. 

OUTLINE 

1.  IMPORTANCE    OF   SEX   IN    LIFE 

a.  The  internal  secretions 

b.  Manifestations  of  sex  in  infancy 

c.  Connection  between  sex  and  the  higher  capacities 

2.  DANGERS    OF   IGNORANCE 

a.  Shock 

b.  Perversions 

c.  Repressions 

d.  Mental  disturbances 

e.  Venereal  diseases 

3.  REGIMEN    FOR   UTILIZING    SEX    IMPULSES 

a.  Physical  health 

b.  Abundant  exercise 

c.  Interest  in  games  and  athletics 

d.  Interest  in  creative  activities 

e.  Formation  of  ideals 

f.  Cultivation  of  social  and  chivalrous  attitudes 

g.  Attainment  of  self-control 

4.  INSTRUCTION   ABOUT   SEX 

a.  Responsibility  of  parent  and  other  agencies 

b.  Timeliness  of  instruction 

c.  Material  and  method  of  instruction 

d.  Keep  line  of  communication  open 


SEX  EDUCATION  161 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Gallichan,  Walter  M.  —  Sex  Education 
Galloway,  T.  W.  —  The  Father  and  His  Boy 

Biology  of  Sex  for  Parents  and  Teachers 
Gruenberg,  B.  C.  — Parents  and  Sex  Education 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  XII,  "The  Stork  or  the  Truth" 

Hood,  Mary  G.  —  For  Girls  and  the  Mothers  of  Girls 
Latimer,  Caroline  W.  —  Girl  and  Woman 
Stowell,  William  L.  —  Sex  for  Parents  and  Teachers 

Non-Technical 
BiGELOW,  Maurice  A.  —  Sex  Education 
ExNER,  Max  J.  —  Problems  and  Principles  of  Sex  Education 
Geddes  and  Thompson  —  Sex 
Healy,  William  —  Mental  Conflicts  and  Misconduct: 

Chap.  X,  "Conflicts  Arising  from  Sex  Conflicts"; 
Chap.  XI,    "Conflicts    Arising    from    Secret    Sex 
Knowledge" 
Long,  Constance  —  Psychology  of  Phantasy: 

Chap.  VII,  "Sex  as  a  Basis  of  Character"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Unconscious  Factors  in  Sex  Educa- 
tion" 

Stowell,  W.  L.  —  Sex  for  Parents  and  Teachers 
Wedekind,  Frank  —  Awakening  of  Spring 
Anonymous  —  A  Young  Girl's  Diary 

Technical 

BousEFiELD,  Paul  —  The  Elements  of  Practical  Psychology: 
Chap.  Ill,  "Evolution  of  the  Erotic  Impulse" 


162  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

FoERSTER,  F.  W.  —  Marriage  and  the  Sex  Problem 
FoREL,  August  —  The  Sexual  Question 
Gruenberg,  B.  C.  —High  Schools  and  Sex  Education 
Moll,  Albert  —  The  Sexual  Life  of  the  Child 

Pamphlets 

Armstrong,  D.  B.  and  E.  B.  —  Sex  in  Life  for  Adolescent 
Boys  and  Girls 

Campbell,  C.  Macfie  —  Nervous  Children  and  Their  Train- 
ing:  Mental  Hygiene,  III,  16-23,  1919 

Dennett,  Mary  Ware  —  The  Sex  Side  of  Life 
Gardiner,  Ruth  Kimball  —  Your  Daughter's  Mother 
Peabody,  James  E.  —  Some  Experiments  in  Sex  Education 

in  the  Home  and  High  School 
The  Parents'  Part,  issued  by  the  Treasury  Department,  U.  S. 
Public  Health  Service 


37.    ADOLESCENCE— PHYSICAL 

The  ''storm  and  stress"  of  adolescence,  long  con- 
sidered as  essentially  characteristic  of  the  period, 
have  been  looked  foi'ward  to  with  fear  and  dread.  A 
better  understanding  of  the  causes  for  the  undoubted 
strains  makes  it  seem  possible  that  the  child  can  be 
piloted  through  adolescence  without  serious  crises. 

After  a  few  years  of  steady  physical  growth,  the 
child  presents  an  almost  sudden  acceleration  of  develop- 
ment. This  period  is  closely  connected  with  the 
approaching  maturity  of  the  reproductive  organs,  and 
many  at  least  of  the  physical  and  emotional  changes  are 
initiated  by  the  presence  in  the  blood  of  specific  sub- 
stances produced  by  these  organs. 

The  rapid  and  unequal  growth  of  organs  gives  rise 
not  only  to  a  rapid  evolution  of  muscular  and  nervous 
energies  that  must  have  safe  channels  for  their  dis- 
charge, but  also  certain  difficulties  of  conduct  and 
adjustment  such  as  awkward  traits  in  carriage  and 
action,  many  automatic  movements,  alternations  of 
overexertion  and  lassitude,  and  others.  These  ener- 
gies need  guidance  and  opportunities  rather  than  suj)- 
pression,  and  the  physical  and  emotional  health  present 
the  chief  problems  of  the  period. 

Physical  activities  in  the  form  of  sports  and  athletics 
should  be  both  more  vigorous  and  better  organized 
than  during  the  earher  years.  They  serve  as  outlets 
for  the  vast  amount  of  energy  generated,  as  means  for 

163 


164  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

perfecting  control  of  the  muscles,  and  as  a  means  for 
training  in  emotional  and  social  adjustment.  Hand 
in  hand  with  vigorous  exercise  there  should,  of  course, 
be  not  onl}^  abundance  of  suitable  food  and  the  assur- 
ance of  sufficient  sleep,  but  a  periodical  physical 
examination  to  detect  the  condition  of  the  heart,  etc., 
and  any  need  for  corrective  work. 


OUTLINE 


1,      PHYSICAL   CHANGES 


a.  Sudden  acceleration  of  growth 

b.  Unequal  development  of  various  tissues  and  organs 

c.  Rapid  increase  in  muscular  and  nervous  energy 

d.  The  maturing  of  the  sex  organs 

e.  Chemical  changes  affecting  appetite,  fatigue,  immu- 

nity to  disease 

f.  Increased  sensory  acuteness 

EFFECTS    IN    CONDUCT 

a.  Awkwardness  of  movement 

b.  Modifications  in  posture  and  gait 

c.  Automatic  movements 

d.  Overexertion  alternating  with  lassitude 

e.  Marked  irritability 

f .  Finicky  appetite ;  digestive  disturbances 

g.  Advantages  of  steady  habits  during  childhood 

REGIMEN  FOR  SPECIAL  NEEDS 

a.  Outlet  for  energy 

(1)  Vigorous  games 

(2)  Gardening 

(3)  Cold  bath 

(4)  Boxing 

(5)  Swimming 

b.  Compensation  for  energy 

(1)  Abundance  of  food;  bulky  rather  than  fine 

(2)  Abundance  of  sleep 


ADOLESCENCE  — PHYSICAL  165 

c.  Corrections  and  habituations 

(1)  Formal  gymnastics 

(2)  Manual  occupations 

(3)  Athletics 

(4)  Musical  instruments 


REFERENCES 

Popular 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  XIII,  "The  Golden  Age  of  Transition" 

King,  Irving  —  The  High  School  Age: 

Chap.  II,  "Physical  Changes  of  the  High  School 

Years"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Physical  Development  and  School  Effi- 
ciency" 

Latimer,  Caroline  W.  —  Girl  and  Woman: 

Chap.  I,  "Physical  Disturbances  of  Girlhood"; 
Chap.  V,  "Menstruation"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Personal  Hygiene"; 
Chap.  IX,  "Bodily  Functions" 

Starr,  Louis  —  The  Adolescent  Period: 

Chap.  I,  "Growth  and  the  Development  of  Muscle 

Power"; 
Chap.  II,  "  Physical  Education  " ; 
Chap.  Ill,  "The  Diseases  of  Adolescence"; 
Chap.  V,  "Menstruation" 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child:  90-91 

Non-Technical 

King,  Irving  —  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development: 
222-225 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making:  216-226 


166  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Slaughter,  J.  W.  —  The  Adolescent: 

Chap.  I,  "General  Survey  of  the  Period"; 

Chap.  II,  "Growth  and  Other  Physical  Changes"; 

Chap.  VII,  "Pathology  and  Hygiene" 

Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence: 

Chap.  I,  "Growth  in  Height  and  Weight"; 
Chap.  II,  "Parts  of  Organs  During  Adolescence"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Growth  of  Motor  Power  and  Function"; 
Chap.  IV,  "Diseases  of  Body  and  Mind"; 
Chap.  IX,  "Changes  in  the  Senses  and  the  Voice" 
Youth: 
Chap.  I,  "  Preadolescence  " ; 
Chap.  II,    "The   Muscles   and   Motor  Powers  in 

General"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Industrial  Education"; 
Chap.  IV,  "Manual  Training  and  Sloyd"; 
Chap.  V,  "Gymnastics"; 
Chap.  VI,  "Play,  Sports,  and  Games" 

Tracy,  Frederick  —  The  Psychology  of  Adolescence: 
Chap.  I,  "A  Preliminary  Survey"; 
Chap.  II,  "General  Characteristics  of  the  Various 

Life  Stages"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "The  Body" 


38.    ADOLESCENCE  —  EMOTIONAL 

The  child's  general  satisfaction  with  himself  and  his 
surroundings  gives  way  during  adolescence  under  the 
pressure  of  a  host  of  problems,  difficulties,  and  malad- 
justments. From  indifference  to  matters  not  immedi- 
ately related  to  pleasures  and  pains,  he  plunges  into 
intense  curiosity  and  self-consciousness,  and  into 
real  though  spasmodic  concern  with  the  standards  of 
adults.  Curiosity  may  show  itself  in  a  great  variety 
of  normal  activities;  but  is  also  subject  to  ready  per- 
version under  unwholesome  surroundings.  And  this 
applies  to  each  of  the  impulses  and  interests  that  now 
come  to  the  front. 

Satisfaction  with  routine  and  drill  is  replaced  by 
restlessness,  leading  often  to  truancy  and  erratic 
action ;  by  doubts  giving  rise  to  religious  disturbances, 
and  by  inability  to  concentrate  for  long  upon  any 
pursuit  or  undertaking. 

After  being  for  years  apparently  content  with 
activities  and  movements  for  their  own  sake,  he  sud- 
denly acquires  new  purposes  and  interest  in  special 
activities  leading  to  definite  results,  whether  in  his 
play  or  in  his  work.  The  interest  in  other  people 
becomes  focused  in  friendship,  and  in  loyalties  to 
companions  of  his  own  choosing.  In  the  same  way  the 
more  or  less  habitual  obedience  and  compliance  with 
rules  is  replaced  by  a  spirit  of  criticism  and  revolt 

167 


168  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

against  authority,  which  usually  means  a  selection  of 
his  own  leaders  and  his  own  ideals  of  conduct. 

The  delinquencies  that  become  so  marked  at  this 
period  may  be  considered  as  the  special  manifestations 
of  normal  impulses  in  an  environment  that  is  radically 
different  from  the  one  in  which  these  impulses  had  their 
origin.  The  restrictions  which  civihzed  life  necessarily 
places  upon  the  impulses  may  compel  the  child  to  find 
satisfying  outlets  of  a  kind  that  are  not  suited  to  social 
life,  and  as  a  result  there  appear  lying,  stealing,  truancy, 
vagrancy,  sexual  perversions,  and  other  distressing 
departures  from  healthy  conduct. 

Opportunity  for  self  expression  along  many  lines, 
sjrmpathy  in  the  rapidly  changing  plans  and  ambitions, 
and  full  recognition  of  the  child's  right  to  his  personality, 
should  make  the  transition  a  happier  one  for  all  con- 
cerned. This  is  at  any  rate  the  "one  chance  to  be  a 
little  of  an  artist,  a  little  of  a  genius,  a  little  of  a  hero  "  — 
if  also  to  older  eyes  a  little  of  a  fool.  But  it  is  the  folly 
of  this  period  that  bears  all  the  potentialities  and  all 
the  hope  of  something  valuable  and  distinctive  in  the 
individual. 

The  adolescent  has  many  new  desires,  and  stands  in 
need  of  stimulation,  inspiration,  and  information.  He 
reaches  out  into  the  material  world  and  takes  to 
himself  what  he  can.  From  in  discriminating  gathering 
of  unattached  objects  he  passes  to  systematic  collecting 
with  growing  discriminations;  in  the  ascending  scale  of 
values  he  passes  from  a  prizing  of  material  things  for 
their  own  sake  to  an  appreciation  of  wealth  for  more 
remote  ends  —  or  remains  permanently  arrested  on  a 
particular  level  of  development.     Romance  and  ad- 


ADOLESCENCE  —  EMOTIONAL  169 

venture  make  a  special  appeal  and  should  have  satis- 
faction partly  in  new  experiences,  travel,  etc.,  partly 
in  the  substitutes  furnished  by  literature,  the  theater, 
etc. 

There  is  equal  need  for  an  outlet  to  release  the 
tensions  and  to  yield  the  satisfactions  of  making  an 
impression  upon  the  persons  and  things  of  the  environ- 
ment. A  variety  of  media  in  the  arts  and  crafts,  op- 
portunity for  oral  and  written  expression,  will  divert 
from  the  temptation  to  indulge  in  direct  action  upon 
the  person  of  a  weaker  associate.  Varying  degrees  of 
intimacy  in  personal  contacts  are  required  —  from  the 
friend  and  confidant  to  the  gang  or  club;  and  the 
opposite  sex  should  be  met  in  social  games,  play,  and 
dancing.  Opportunity  for  leadership  and  initiative, 
for  exhibition  of  prowess  and  attainment,  and  for 
development  of  chivalry  and  the  more  generous  im- 
pulses should  be  a  normal  part  of  the  surroundings. 

The  final  need  of  the  period  is  for  integration. 
While  this  need  should  be  constantly  kept  in  mind,  there 
is  danger  of  pushing  it  too  hastily  to  a  finish,  before  all 
the  usable  elements  have  had  time  to  appear  or  develop. 
On  the  one  hand,  there  is  danger  of  a  fixed  character, 
narrowly  hmited  in  its  sympathies,  its  appreciations, 
its  visions;  on  the  other  hand,  a  failure  to  find  a  nucleus 
about  which  pui-pose  and  growth  may  be  organized  — 
dissipated  versatiHty  leading  nowhere.  In  the  former 
case  early  maturity  and  arrested  growth,  with  perhaps 
effectively  directed  but  specialized  ability;  in  the 
latter  case,  eternal  youth,  perhaps,  but  never  a  forceful 
focusing  of  character. 

Self-discovery  is  to  be  considered  not  some  mystic 


170  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

finding  of  a  finished  personality  that  hes  concealed 
within  the  growing  child.  It  must  be  a  positive, 
creative  process,  a  synthesis  of  many  elements,  a 
joining  together  more  or  less  deliberately  of  the  scattered 
interests  of  adolescence,  into  a  coherent  and  harmonious 
system  of  ideals  and  purposes  and  habits. 


OUTLINE 

1.  NEW   INTERESTS  AND   IMPULSES 

a.  Sex-consciousness 

b.  Curiosity,  basis  of  intellectual  pursuits 

c.  Self-consciousness 

d.  Social  interests 
6.  Creative  impulse 

f .  Relation  to  authority 

g.  Delinquencies 

2.  THE   NEEDS    OF   THE    PERIOD 

a.  Impression  (Resources  for  feeding  emotional  hunger) 

(1)  Acquisitiveness,  collecting 

(2)  Romance   and    adventure,    travel,    literature, 

theater 

(3)  Curiosity 

b.  Expression  (Outlet  for  emotional  energy) 

(1)  Creative  activities;   arts  and  crafts;  dramatics 

(2)  Companionship;  friendship,  club,  social  gath- 

erings, dancing 

(3)  Leadership;  group  activities  and  projects 

(4)  Service;  outlet  for  chivalry,  generosity,  charity 

c.  Guidance 

(1)  In  self-discovery 

(2)  In  appreciation 

(3)  In  formation  of  ideals 

d.  Rest 

(1)  Solitude  and  quiet 

(2)  Time  to  digest  and  assimilate 


ADOLESCENCE  —  EMOTIONAL  171 

3.      ATTITUDE    OF   ADULTS 

a.  Considerateness 

b.  Sympathy  through  intimate  understanding 

c.  Encouragement 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Allen,  Anna  W.  —  Boys  and  Girls: 

Atlantic  Monthly,  CXXV,  796-804,  June,  1920 

Betts,  Geo.  H.  —  Fathers  and  Mothers: 

Chap.  X,  "Passing  Over  from  Childhood" 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 
Chap.  XIII,  "The  Golden  Age  of  Transition" 
Sons  and  Daughters:  75-78 

Healy,  W.  —  Mental  Conflict  and  Miscond-uct: 
Chap.  II,  "General  Principles"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Applications",  69-75 

King,  Irving  —  The  High  School  Age: 

Chap.  VII,  "The  Birth  of  a  New  Self  "; 

Chap.  VIII,  "  Characteristic  Phases  and  Dangers  of 

the  New  Self"; 
Chap.  IX,  "The  High  School  Period  in  Retrospect" 

Latimer,  Caroline  W.  —  Girl  and  Woman: 

Chap.  Ill,  "The  Moral  Disturbances  of  Girlhood" 

Starr,  Louis  —  The  Adolescent  Period: 

Chap.  IV,  "The  Faults  and  Criminal  Tendencies  of 
Adolescence" 

Non-Technical 

King,  Irving  —  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development:  225- 

233 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  a.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making:  226-250 


172  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Slaughter,  J.  W.  —  The  Adolescent: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Normal  Development  of  the  Instincts 

and  Emotions"; 
Chap.  IV,  "Adolescent  Love"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Juvenile  Crime  and  Its  Treatment" 

Stedman,  Henry  R.  — ■  Mental  Pitfalls  of  Adolescence: 

Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  CLXXII,  695-713, 
November,  1916 

Swift,  E.  J.  —  Mind  in  the  Making: 

Chap.  II,    "Criminal   Tendencies  of  Boys:   Their 
Cause  and  Function" 
Youth  and  the  Race: 
Chap.  I,  "The  Spirit  of  Adventure"; 
Chap.  II,  "The  Way  of  Youth" 

Tracy,  Frederick  —  The  Psychology  of  Adolescence: 

Chap.  VI,  "Emotion,  or  the  Capacity  to  Feel"; 
Chap.  XI,  "The  Appreciation  of  Beauty  in  Nature 
and  Art" 

Waddle,  Charles  W.  —  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology: 
243-250 

Watson,  J.  B.  —  Psychology  from  the  Viewpoint  of  a  Be- 
haviorist:  415-418 

Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence: 

Chap.  V,     "Juvenile     Faults^     Immoralities   and 

Crimes"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "  Adolescence  in  Literature,  Biography, 

and  History"; 
Chap.  X,  "Evolution  of  the  FeeUngs  and  Instincts 

Characteristic  of  Normal  Adolescence"; 
Chap.  XV,  "Social  Instincts  and  Institutions" 


ADOLESCENCE  —  EMOTIONAL  173 

Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hygiene: 
Chap.  VII,  "Faults,  Lies,  and  Crimes"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Biographies  of  Youth"; 
Chap.  IX,  "The  Growth  of  Social  Ideals"; 
Chap.  XII,  "Moral  and  Rehgious  Training" 


39.  ADOLESCENCE  —  INTELLECTUAL 

The  curiosity  that  appears  on  the  intellectual  plane 
as  a  desire  for  knowledge,  explanation,  and  understand- 
ing, is  a  special  phase  of  the  basic  trend  that  shows 
itself  in  physical  restlessness  and  discomfort,  automatic 
movements,  and  in  apparently  aimless  manipulations. 
And  it  manifests  itself  emotionally  as  a  romantic 
sentiment,  a  discontent  with  the  immediate  surround- 
ings, a  desire  for  adventure,  and  impossible  day- 
dreams. 

The  mind  of  the  adolescent  is  rapidly  expanding  and 
seeks  knowledge  of  more  than  can  possibly  be  learned 
at  first  hand;  hence  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
reading,  when  reading  is  not  too  difficult;  and  hence  an 
expansion  in  the  range  of  subjects  read.  Information 
thus  obtained  at  second  hand,  through  reading,  lectures, 
visits  to  museums,  and  so  on,  is  readily  absorbed,  but 
should  of  course  be  considered  as  supplementary  to 
first  hand  experience  in  the  fields  and  woods,  in  the 
shop,  and  laboratory  and  studio.  Indeed,  the  effective 
absorption  of  a  considerable  amount  of  such  second- 
hand imagery  and  abstraction  will  depend  upon  the 
extent  of  the  direct,  concrete  experience  to  which  it 
may  be  attached. 

There  is  a  searching  further  for  aid  in  formulating 
experience,  with  a  certain  readiness,  in  spite  of  the 
critical  attitude,  to  accept  plausible  or  well  com- 
mended  authorities  on  the  wisdom  of  the  race.     There 

174 


ADOLESCENCE  —  INTELLECTUAL  175 

should  be  every  opportuDity,  therefore,  to  become 
acquainted  with  what  the  best  and  wisest  have  thought 
and  said.  Yet  narrow  or  sectarian  indoctrination 
should  be  scrupulously  avoided,  whether  in  religion  or 
in  politics,  whether  in  art  or  in  business. 

The  academic  activities  of  the  adolescent  should  in 
the  earlier  years  consist  of  the  accumulation  of  informa- 
tion, with  Uttle  attempt  at  interpretation.  Progres- 
sively there  should  come  increasing  analysis  and 
organization.  By  analogy  with  the  earlier  develop- 
ment of  the  large  muscles,  and  the  later  use  of  the  small 
ones,  the  studies  should  deal  at  first  with  the  broader 
outlines;  details  and  precision  may  be  expected  only 
after  specialized  interests  have  begun  to  show  them- 
selves. 

In  general  the  studies  of  the  high  school  period 
concern  themselves  with  an  understanding  of  social 
relations,  as  distinguished  from  the  acquisition  of 
habits  of  conventional  conduct  necessary  for  social 
adjustment.  There  should  be  a  study  of  the  indi- 
vidual's place  in  the  community;  the  reciprocal  rights 
and  duties  need  now  to  be  understood  as  well  as 
exercised;  the  discovery  of  types  of  service  that  are 
worth  while  socially  and  that  are  at  the  same  time 
satisfying  modes  of  self-expression ;  the  formulation  of 
principles;  a  study  of  the  meanings  to  be  found  in 
nature  and  in  human  experience. 

These  considerations  should  furnish  the  guide  in  the 
selection  of  studies,  as  well  as  in  the  methods  of  treat- 
ment: nature,  especially  in  its  organic  aspects,  with  a 
matter-of-fact  study  of  sex  and  reproduction;  social 
sciences,  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  civilized 


17G  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

community  and  of  the  family;  the  dynamics  or  evolu- 
tion of  institutions  —  a  study  of  history,  that  is,  which 
indicates  how  we  have  come  to  our  present  state  of 
affairs;  human  achievement  in  the  lives  of  men  and 
women  of  the  past  worth  knowing;  human  nature,  not 
so  much  in  formal  psychology,  as  in  drama  and  fiction; 
interpretation  through  poetry  and  essays,  serving  as  an 
introduction  to  religious  and  philosophical  literature. 

In  the  infantile  stage  our  curiosity,  or  hunger  for 
knowing,  is  but  the  desire  for  the  satisfactions  that 
come  from  sensations.  It  appears  not  only  in  the 
incessant  questionings,  but  also  as  prying  into  closed 
spaces,  the  playing  of  hide-and-find  games,  in  distorting 
the  vision  by  pressing  the  eyeball,  and  in  peering  from 
between  the  fingers.  On  the  sublimation  of  curiosity, 
see  No.  38  Curiosity. 

OUTLINE 

1.  EXPANSION   OF  INTERESTS 

a.  Eagerness  for  novelty 

b.  Omniverous  intellectual  appetite 

c.  Superficial  and  transitory  of  necessity 

2.  SHIFTING   OF   INTELLECTUAL  ATTITUDE 

a.  From  facts  to  meanings 

b.  From  authority  to  reason 

c.  From  convention  to  criticism 

3.  NEW  INTEREST  IN  ORGANIZATION  OF  KNOWLEDGE 

a.  From  classification  of  materials  to  classification   of 

ideas 

b.  Search  for  systems 

c.  Integration  of  knowledge  into  principles 


ADOLESCENCE  —  INTELLECTUAL  177 

4.  SEX  DIFFERENCES 

a.  Girls  develop  earlier 

b.  Boys  seek  explanations  earlier 

c.  Differentiation  of  "How?"  from  "Why?"  questions 

5.  SELECTION   OF   STUDIES 

a.  Freedom  in  range  of  reading 

b.  Opportunity  to  sample  all  fields  of  intellectual  ac- 

tivity 

c.  Acquaintance  wi,th  basic  groups  of  studies 

(1)  Language 

(2)  Sciences  —  natural  and  social 

(3)  Achievement  —  history  and  biography 

(4)  Interpretation  —  literature,  criticism,  and  in- 

troduction to  philosophy 

d.  Thinking  and  inspiration  as  well  as  information 

e.  Danger  of  early  specialization 

6.  IMPLICATION   AS   TO   METHODS 

a.  Increasing  freedom  of  choice 

b.  Increasing  challenge  to  thought 

c.  Increasing  opportunity  for  initiative  and  experimen- 

tation 

d.  Encouragement  of  self-reliance 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
King,  Irving  —  The  High  School  Age: 

Chap.  V,  "The  Mental  Changes  of  the  Teens;  the 

Earlier  Years"; 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Broadening  Vision" 
KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making: 

Chap.  IX,  "Later  Adolescence" 
Stout,  J.  E.  —  The  High  School: 

Pt.  I,  Chap.  II,  "Factors  Determining  Function  of 

the  High  School"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Education  of  Girls"; 
Pt.  II,  Chap.  XI,  "The  Social  Studies" 


178  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Swift,  E.  J.  —  Mind  in  the  Making: 

Chap.  I,  "Standard  of  Human  Power" 

Non-Technical 

Dewey,  J.—Hmo  We  Think:   12-13; 

Chap.  Ill,  "Natural  Resources  in  the  Training  of 

Tliought"; 
Chap.  IV,  "School  Conditions  and  the  Training  of 

Thought"; 
Chap.  V,  "The  Means  and  End  of  Mental  Training; 

the  Psychological  and  the  Logical" 

Holmes,  A.  H.  —  Principles  of  Character  Making:   255-263 

Monroe,  Paul  —  Principles  of  Secondary  Education:   248- 
250,  257,  287-310 

NoRswoRTHY  AND  Whitley  —  Psychology  of  Childhood:  154- 
159,  182-183,  292-294 

Parker,  S.  C.  —  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools: 

331,  360; 
Chap.  IX,  "Reflective  Thinking"; 
Chap.  XIII,  "Influence  of  Age  on  Learning"; 
Chap.  XIV,  "Interest,    the   Basis   of  Economy  in 

Learning' ' 

Slaughter,  J.  W.  —  The  Adolescent: 

Chap.  V,  "Scepticism:  The  Period  of  Storm  and 
Stress"; 

Chap.  VI,  "Unification:  The  Philosophical  Psycho- 
sis"; 

Chap.  IX,  "Education  of  Boys  During  Ado- 
lescence"; 

Chap.  X,  "Education  of  Girls  During  Adolescence" 
Tracy,  Frederick  —  The  Psychology  of  Adolescence: 

Chap.  IV,  "The  Mind:   General  Treatment"; 

Chap.  VII,  "Intellect,  or  the  Capacity  to  Think"; 


ADOLESCENCE  —  INTELLECTUAL  179 

Chap.  X,     "Intellectual    Education    and    School 

Work"; 
Chap.  XI,  ''The  Education  of  Girls"; 
Chap.  XIV,  "The  Pedagogy  of  Adolescence" 

Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence: 

Vol.  II;    Chap.  XVI,    "Intellectual   Development 

and  Education"; 
Chap.  XVII,  "Adolescent  Girls  and  Their  Educa- 
tion" 
Youth: 
Chap.  X,     "Intellectual    Education    and    School 

Work"; 
Chap.  XI,  "The  Education  of  Girls" 


40.    COEDUCATION 

The  traditional  separation  of  boys  and  girls  duriiij^ 
their  schooling  rested  upon  the  different  status  of  men 
and  women.  With  increasing  access  to  economic 
opportunities,  education  of  girls  was  gradually  ex- 
tended until  arbitrary  restrictions  are  no  longer  toler- 
ated. The  separation  of  the  sexes  in  educational  insti- 
tutions, wherever  it  exists,  is  at  present  justified  on  the 
ground  of  native  and  permanent  differences  between 
the  sexes,  requiring  a  differentiated  treatment  of  boys 
and  girls. 

Although  the  development  of  public  schools  for  all 
children  compelled  coeducation  in  the  lower  grades 
for  reasons  of  economy,  this  method  has  been  in- 
creasingly adopted  in  secondary  and  higher  schools  on 
the  ground  that  it  best  serves  the  major  aims  of  educa- 
tion. At  present,  approximately  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
children  in  secondary  schools  of  this  country  are  in 
coeducational  institutions;  and  about  two  thirds  of 
the  young  women  attending  colleges  and  universities 
are  in  coeducational  institutions. 

The  opposition  to  coeducation  for  high  school  and 
college  grades  rests  upon  differences  in  the  rate  of 
development  between  the  sexes,  differences  in  physical 
endurance,  danger  of  social  distractions,  and  need  for 
differentiating  studies.  On  the  other  hand,  coeduca- 
tion is  not  only  more  economical  from  an  administrative 
viewpoint,  but  it  promotes  cooperation  and  democracy 

180 


COEDUCATION  181 

between  the  sexes,  trains  in  necessary  social  inter- 
course, and  diminishes  sexual  immorality. 

The  tendency  in  all  education  is  to  widen  oppor- 
tunity for  differentiated  studies  adapted  to  needs  of 
various  groups  or  individuals.  Accordingly,  coeduca- 
tion of  the  sexes  need  not  mean  an  identical  program 
of  studies,  or  identical  methods  of  instruction  for  all. 
It  means  merely  that  a  large  part  of  the  child's  experi- 
ence is  to  be  shared  with  other  children  —  including 
those  of  the  opposite  sex.  This  permits  at  every  stage 
endless  adjustments  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the 
individual  and  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  various 
groups,  including  boys  or  girls. 

OUTLINE 

1 .  HISTORICAL 

a.  Schools  for  boys  only 

b.  Admission  of  girls  to  school 

c.  Establishment  of  schools  for  girls 

d.  Distinction  between  elementary  and  higher  education 

2.  PRESENT   USAGE 

a.  In  the  United  States 

(1)  City  and  country 

(2)  Eastern  and  Western  regions 

(3)  Elementary  and  higher  schools 

(4)  Public  and  private  schools 

b.  In  other  countries 

(1)  England  and  Scotland 

(2)  France 

(3)  Germany 

(4)  Sweden 

(5)  Italy 

(6)  Canada  and  Australia 


182  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

3.  OPPOSITION   TO    COEDUCATION 

a.  Sexes  develop  unevenly  from  11th  to  15th  year 

b.  Boys  suffer  from  competition  with  girls  in  secondary 

school  period 

(1)  Precocity  of  girls 

(2)  Self-confidence  of  girls 

c.  Social  life  may  become  too  intense 

d.  Girls  predominate  in  high  school,  making  boys  lose 

interest  in  studies  and  leave  school 

e.  Intensive  work  too  severe  for  girls  in  higher  grades 

f.  Girls  fail  to  develop  certain  finer  feminine  qualities 

g.  Boys  fail  to  develop  certain  virile  qualities 

h.  Differentiation  of  studies  according  to  physical,  cul- 
tural, vocational,  and  social  needs  is  retarded 

4.  ARGUMENTS    FOR   COEDUCATION 

a.  It  is  more  economical 

b.  It  makes  for  equality  and  democracy 

c.  It  promotes  capacity  for  cooperation 

d.  It  makes  for  better  mutual  understanding,  and  for 

a  wholesome  disillusionment 

e.  It  diminishes  immorality 

f.  It  increases  mutual  respect  on  intellectual  level 

g.  It  facilitates  acquisition  of  ease  in  social  intercourse 
h.  It  makes  for  development  of  more  flexible  types  of 

school  administration 

5.  PRESENT   TENDENCIES 

a.  Extension  of  secondary  school  organization  into  lower 

grades 

b.  Recognition  by  schools  of  responsibility  for  meeting 

wider  range  of  needs  —  physical,  vocational,  civic, 
cultural 

c.  Increasing  opportunities  for  individualized  or  other 

differentiated  program  in  composite  schools 

d.  A  school  for  all  the  children,  but  not  treating  all  alike 


COEDUCATION  183 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Dewey,  John  —  Is  Coeducation  Injurious  to  Girls? 

Ladies'  Home  Journal,  XXVIII,  22,  June,  1911 

FiNCK,  Hervey  T.  —  Why  Coeducation  is  Losing  Ground: 
Independent,  LV,  301,  361,  February  5,  12,  1903 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters:  58 

Monroe,  Paul  —  Encyclopedia  of  Education: 
Article  on  "Coeducation" 

Patterson,  Herbert  P.  —  The  Logical  Problem  of  Coedu- 
cation: 
Education,  XXXVII,  112-115,  1916 

Rice,  Richard,  Jr.  —  The  Educational  Value  of  Coeducation: 
Independent,  December  5,  1912 

Slosson,  E.  E.  —  Coeducation  from  Another  Standpoint: 
Independent,  LV,  February  12,  1903 
(An  answer  to  the  Finck  article) 

Woods,  Alice,  Editor  —  Advance  in  Coeducation: 
Articles  by  various  authors 

Non-Technical 

Angell,   James   R.  —  Some  Reflections  upon  the  Reaction 
from  Coeducation: 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  LXII,  5-26,  1902 

Armstrong,  J.  E.  —  The  Advantages  of  Limited  Sex  Segre- 
gation in  the  High  School: 
School  Review,  XVIII,  338-350,  1910 

Draper,  Andrew  —  Coeducation  in  the  United  States: 

Educational  Review,  XXV,  109-129,  February,  1903 

Gale,  Zona  —  What  of  Coeducation? 
Atlantic  Monthly,  July,  1914 


184  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,   and 
Hygiene:  286-297 

Jordan,  David  Starr  —  The  Care  and  Culture  of  Men:  71-90 

King,  Irving  —  The  High  School  Age:  220-224 

Anonymous  —  Coeducation  and  Marriage: 

Journal  of  Heredity,  VIII,  43,  January,  1917. 

Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence:  II,  617-647 
Educational  Problems:  II,  586-593 

Harper,  Ida  H.  —  The  Permanency  of  Coeducation: 
Independent,  LV,  March  12,  1903 

Thomson,  Helen  B.  —  The  Mental  Traits  of  Sex 


41.    CHOOSING  AN  OCCUPATION 

Most  people  do  not  choose  occupations;  they  drift 
into  jobs.  And  for  most  people  the  job  is  not  a 
fulfillment  and  satisfaction  of  natural  and  legitimate 
cravings,  but  a  necessary  and  disagreeable  grind. 
For  the  normal  child,  the  first  need  is  an  opportunity  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  kinds  of  work  that  the 
world  needs  to  have  done  —  not  merely  in  an  academic 
sense,  but  through  direct  contact  and  concrete  sampling 
of  the  activities  and  experiences  that  make  up  the 
work.  In  the  next  place  he  needs  to  acquire  an  attitude 
of  workmanship,  of  interest  in  and  desire  for  work  — 
work  as  activity,  as  means  of  self  expression,  and  as 
instrument  of  service.  And  finally,  he  must  get  a 
set  of  standards  or  criteria  of  values  with  respect  to 
work  —  what  the  world  has  a  right  to  demand  of  the 
worker,  and  what  the  worker  has  a  right  to  expect  from 
the  work  and  from  the  world  in  return.  In  each  of 
these  three  aspects  of  the  child's  adjustment  to  the 
problem  of  finding  his  occupation,  the  child  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  material  and  the  spiritual  surround- 
ings, whether  at  home  or  in  school,  or  in  the  com- 
munity at  large. 

In  practice,  the  child's  work  should  normally  be  an 
outgrowth  of  his  play  and  study.  Every  day  the  new 
experiences  actually  serve  to  discover  new  interests  and 
capacities,  and  there  is  a  gradual  selection  influenced  by 
the  satisfactions  derived  from  the  various  experiences, 

185 


186  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

by  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  teachers  and  parents 
and  fellows,  by  the  esteem  in  which  the  representatives 
of  various  callings  are  held  in  the  community,  by  the 
outward  and  visible  signs  of  social  grace  which  these 
representatives  manifest.  The  interests  of  the  child 
show  a  progression  corresponding  to  intellectual  and 
emotional  development,  but  determined  as  to  form  by 
what  he  sees  going  on  around  him.  With  this  progres- 
sion there  should  be  a  differentiation  that  eventually 
leads  to  the  selection  of  main  lines  of  activity.  While 
the  interest  in  a  specialized  activity  is  valuable  in 
focusing  application  and  effort,  the  "life  career  motive" 
should  not  be  overworked,  since  it  is  undesirable  to 
force  early  specialization.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
interests  nianifested  at  any  given  time,  whether  in 
being  a  policeman  or  an  Indian  chief,  may  properly  be 
employed  to  further  the  estabUshment  of  those  ideals  or 
habits  that  constitute  the  distinctive  virtues  of  the 
calling  in  question. 

In  the  choice  of  an  occupation,  as  in  the  evolution 
of  ideals,  the  child  is  influenced  by  his  reading,  the 
pictures  he  sees,  the  conversations  he  overhears,  and  by 
obscure  flows  of  feeling,  at  least  as  much  as  by  the 
explicit  and  deliberate  teachings  of  elders.  In  the 
same  way,  too,  choice  may  be  influenced  by  defects  or 
by  exceptional  acuteness  of  one  or  another  sense  organ, 
by  timidities  or  fears  or  curiosities  acquired  early  in  life. 
A  frustration  with  a  resultant  stimulation  of  effort, 
an  inferiority  complex  with  a  resultant  attempt  at 
compensation,  may  become  factors  in  the  choice  of 
occupation. 

By  attempting  to  use  forethought  and  intelligence 


CHOOSING  AN  OCCUPATION  187 

we  can  unquestionably  get  better  results  than  arise  from 
the  policy  of  drift.  But  there  is  danger  in  attempting 
to  obtain  short  cuts,  whether  through  the  premature 
speciahzation  of  training,  or  through  some  esoteric 
determination  of  abihty  —  phrenology,  palmistry, 
astrology  and  other  weird  cults  are  always  ready  to 
serve.  On  the  other  hand,  increasing  knowledge  of  the 
significant  factors  in  the  unfolding  of  ability  will  give 
us  progressively  better  insight  into  the  individual 
child,  and  systematic  tests  of  various  kinds  are  becom- 
ing daily  more  useful  in  detecting  limitations  and 
capacities.  But  in  the  end  concrete  performance  in  a 
variety  of  activities  will  serve  most  helpfully  in  deter- 
mining what  boys  and  girls  can  or  can  not  do  well. 

OUTLINE 

1.  WHAT  AN   OCCUPATION   IS   TO   THE   INDIVIDUAL 

a.  A  body  of  specialized  activities 

b.  A  means  of  self-expression 

c.  A  means  for  gaining  recognition  or  approval 

d.  A  means  of  rendering  service 

e.  A  source  of  income 

2.  IMPORTANCE   OF  VOCATIONAL  ADJUSTMENT 

a.  Economy  of  adequate  distribution  of  workers 

b.  Contribution  to  happiness  of  indi\'idual8 

c.  Danger  of  invidious  stratification  of  occupations 

3.  VOCATIONS   AND    HUMAN   TALENTS 

a.  There  is  no  necessary  correlation  between  talents  and 

socially  needed  services 

b.  There  is  no  necessary  correlation  between  a  child's 

admirations  and  his  abilities 

c.  The  genius  finds  a  new  way  of  doing  useful  things 

d.  Mediocrity  can  follow  suit 

e.  Social  changes  eliminate  occupations  and  make  way 

for  new  ones 


188  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

4.  THE   child's  need   FOR  SELF-DISCOVERY 

a.  An  acquaintance  with  the  kinds  of  work  the  world 

needs  to  have  done  through  actual  work  experi- 
ence 

b.  An  interest  in  and  desire  for  work 

c.  Standards  of  value  with  respect  to  work 

(1)  Social  or  ethical  justification 

(2)  Its  contribution  to  the  worker 

(3)  Its    demand    upon    the    worker  —  physically, 

spiritually,  socially 

5.  THE   PROCESS 

a.  Self-revelation  and  development  through  play 

b.  Transition  from  play  to  work 

c.  Progressive  differentiation  of  interests  and  preferred 

activities  —  in   play,   in  work,  in  study,   through 
the  action  of 

(1)  Inherent  factors  of  sensitiveness  and  capacities 

(2)  Models  for  imitation 

(3)  Approval  or  disapproval  of  teachers  and  parent 

(4)  The  community's  esteem  for  types  of  service 

or  personality,  or  mode  of  living 

(5)  Suggestion  from  reading,  etc. 

(6)  Deliberate  guidance 

(7)  Personal  limitations  and  emotional  reactions 

6.  STANDARDIZED    PROCEDURE 

a.  Danger  of  short  cuts  and  charlatanism 

b.  Danger  of  early  speciaUzation 

c.  School  and  home  observations 

d.  Records  of  changing  tastes,  interests,  preferences,  etc. 

e.  Systematic  tests 

(1)  Psychological 

(2)  Scholastic 

(3)  Specialized  trade  tests,  etc. 

f.  Try-out  experiences  in  school  and  industry 

g.  Use  of  hfe-career  motive  and  other  sources  of  stimu- 

lation 


CHOOSING  AN  OCCUPATION  189 

REFERENCES 

PoTpular 

Barnes,  Eabl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

Second  Series,  243-253,  "Children's  Ambitions" 

FiLENE,  Catherine  —  Careers  for  Women 

HoERLE  AND  Saltzberg  —  The  Girl  and  ihe  Job 

Non-Technical 

Allen,  F.  J.  —  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Occupations 

Bloomfield,   Meyer  —  Readings  in   Vocational  Guidance: 
"  Selecting  Young  Men  for  Particular  Jobs  "  (Her- 
man Schneider) 

"Charting  Children  in  Cincinnati"  (Helen  Thomp- 
son Woolley) 

Brill,  A.  A.  —  Fundamental  Conceptions  of  Psychoanalysis: 
Chap.  XIII,  "Selection  of  Vocations" 

Gowin  and  Wheatley  —  Occupations 

Technical 
Bloomfield,  Meyer  —  Readijujs  in  Vocational  Guidance 
Brewer,  J.  M.  —  The  Vocational  Guidance  Movement 


42.     TRAINING    IN    SOCIAL   RESPONSIBILITY 

The  child  acquires  the  feehng  of  responsibility 
gradually.  The  burden  should  be  graded  to  correspond 
to  his  ability  to  bear  it,  and  should  be  steadily  increased. 
The  feeling,  as  distinguished  from  habits  of  punctuality, 
promptness,  orderliness,  and  so  on,  arises  from  associa- 
tion with  others,  from  sympathy,  and  from  the  imagin- 
ative participation  in  the  effects  upon  others  of  the 
various  activities  in  which  the  children  share. 

Home  responsibilities  begin  with  the  care  of  toys 
and  clothing,  with  helping  in  minor  tasks,  with  con- 
sideration for  the  routine  of  the  establishment  involving 
other  members  of  the  household,  with  caring  for 
younger  brothers  and  sisters,  and  with  being  rehed 
upon  to  help  the  elders  occasionally  or  regularly. 
School  responsibilities  begin  with  punctuality,  which  is 
primarily  a  social  virtue,  having  to  do  with  time  values 
of  others  and  with  the  routine  of  a  group. 

In  relation  to  other  children  on  the  playground, 
social  responsibiUty  arises  out  of  the  feeling  of  fair  play, 
out  of  consideration  for  the  rights  of  others,  and  out  of 
the  idea  of  non-interference  which  playground  experi- 
ence develops.  In  organized  groups  involving  team- 
work, excursions,  camping,  and  so  on,  the  feeling  of 
responsibility  acquires  wider  scope.  The  more  pro- 
gressive schools,  both  elementary  and  high,  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  are  giving  children  increasing  oppor- 
tunity to  share  in  the  responsibility  of  the  regular 

190 


TRAINING  IN  SOCIAL  RESPONSIBILITY  191 

class  work  as  a  social  project.  The  so-called  "  socalized 
recitation"  partakes  of  a  great  variety  of  forms,  but 
always  seeks  to  furnish  the  children  actual  practice  in 
the  social  virtues,  especially  responsibility. 

In  addition,  however,  to  making  good  followers  who 
acknowledge  authority  and  accept  leadership  as  neces- 
sary for  safety,  coordination  of  effort  and  progress,  we 
need  further  to  develop  that  higher  level  of  responsi- 
bility which  challenges  authority  when  occasion  arises, 
which  questions  routine  and  rules.  Democracy  re- 
quires that  children,  after  learning  to  follow  the  lules, 
learn  further  that  rules  are  convenient  devices  for 
facihtating  human  relations  and  procedure,  and  that 
we  are  answerable  for  improving  upon  the  rulas  or  even 
for  overthrowing  them.  The  responsibility  for  leader- 
ship is  quite  as  urgent  as  that  for  followership. 

In  general,  the  feeling  of  responsibility,  once  well 
started  grows  with  the  child's  experience  in  social 
relationships.  As  the  child  feels  himself  a  member  of  a 
larger  and  larger  group  or  community,  his  responsi- 
bility will  be  transferred  to  the  members  of  the  larger 
group,  or  to  the  group  as  a  whole;  and  conversely,  his 
feeling  of  the  larger  group  will  grow  with  the  experience 
which  he  shares  with  members  in  the  larger  relationship. 
The  problem  is  to  make  the  child  conscious  of  himself 
in  his  capacity  of  gioup  membership,  or  to  feel  himself 
as  the  representative  of  the  group,  so  that  his  decisions 
and  attitudes  can  be  justified  in  terms  of  the  general 
need  or  v.-elfare.  This  end  can  be  reached  only  through 
much  and  varied  experience  in  different  social  relation- 
ships, through  inspiring  examples  of  conduct  manifest- 
ing the  desired  attitudes,  and  through  guidance  in  the 


192  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

formulation  of  those  ideals  and  general  principles 
that  mark  the  highly  evolved  types  of  social  and  moral 
adjustment. 

OUTLINE 

1.  WHAT  THE  HOME  MUST  TEACH 

a.  Orderliness 

(1)  Things  must  be  in  their  place,  or  we  shall  suf- 

fer; toys,  clothing,  furniture,  and  appliances 
in  the  room 

(2)  People  must  be  in  their  places  on  time,  or  we 

shall  suffer;  the  routine  of  the  household 

b.  Kindness 

(1)  Helpfulness  makes  us  all  happier 

(2)  Attitude  toward  paid  helpers 

(3)  Hospitality  toward  strangers  within  the  house, 

visitors 

c.  Considerateness 

(1)  Keeping  engagements 

(2)  Carrying  out  instructions 

(3)  Sharing  in  work 

(4)  Finding  the  purpose,  not  merely  the  words  or 

rules 

(5)  Reliability  of  word  or  promise 

2.  APPLICATION   AND    GROWTH    IN    THE    SCHOOL 

a.  Punctualitj'  required  by  orderliness  and  considerate- 

ness 

b.  Observation  of  routine  necessary  for  the  protection  of 

individual  rights 

c.  Recognition  of  authority  or  leadership  necessary  for 

(1)  Safety  (e.g.,  fire  drill) 

(2)  Expedition 

(3)  Progress 

d.  Questioning  of  routine  and  rules  necessary  for  de- 

mocracy 

(1)  Rules  and  regulations  as  empirical  devices 

(2)  Rules  subject  to  change  with  conditions;  with 

inventiveness  and  improvements 


TRAINING  IN  SOCIAL  RESPONSIBILITY  193 

(3)  Responsibility  of  individual  toward  improve- 
ment of  rules,  etc. 
e.  Sharing  responsibility 

3.  GROWTH    AND    APPLICATION   AT   PLAY 

a.  Non-interference,  from  experience  with  grabbing  and 

jostUng  of  others 

b.  Fair  play,  from  experience  with  unfairness  of  others, 

and  with  the  group's  penalties  for  unfairness 

c.  Teamwork,  from  experience  in  joint  enterprises  and 

later  from  games  involving  division  of  labor  or 
special  functions 

4.  GROWTH   AND   APPLICATION  IN  THE   COMMUNITY 

a.  The  thoroughfare:   open  to  all,  used  by  all,  the  con- 

cern of  all 

(1)  To  maintain 

(2)  To  keep  clean 

(3)  To  use  considerately 

b.  Parks,  playgrounds,  etc.:    these,  too,  are  ours,  for 

joint  use  involves  mutual  obligations  of  consid- 
erateness 

c.  Public  gatherings,  theater,  concert,  etc. :  principle  of 

non-interference 

d.  Attitude  toward  strangers;  general  courtesy;  help  to 

those  seeking  directions,  information,  etc. 

e.  Public  spirit :   the  call  of  the  community  for  help 

f.  I  am  my  brother's  keeper 

5.  METHODS 

a.  Manifestation  of  attitude  on  part  of  parents,  teachers, 

etc. 

b.  Interpretation  of  difficulties  and  demands,  rather  than 

inculcation  of  mottoes,  etc. 

c.  Aid  in  formulation  of  ideals  and  general  principles, 

on  basis  of  experience  and  discussion 

d.  Opportunity  for  participation  in  home  activities 

e.  Organization  of  joint  activities  in  school 

(1)  For  school  service 

(2)  For  community  service 


194  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

f.  Training  in  parliamentary  procedure  in  elube,  acbool 
classes,  etc. 

REFERENCES 

Papular 

Berle,  a.  a.  —  The  School  in  the  Home: 

Chap.  VII,  "Mental  Self -Organization '* 

Bloomfield,  M.  —  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth:    109-116 

Fisher,  Dorothy  C.  —  Mothers  and  Children:   107-108 

Hood,  M.  G.  —  For  Girls  and  the  Mothers  of  Girls:    Chap. 
XXV-XXVIII 

Hughes,  James  L.  —  FroeheVs  Educational  Laws:  154-178 

Latimer,  C.  —  Girl  and  Woman: 

Chap.  Ill,  "Moral  Disturbances  of  Girlhood" 

Non-Technical 

Adler,  Felix  —  The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children: 

Chap.  XIII,  "Duties  Which  Relate  to  Others"; 
Chap.  XIV,  "Duties  toward  All  Men"; 
Chap.  XV,  "The  Elements  of  Civic  Duty" 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Educatimi:  Second  Series,  62-70, 
203-217 

Chance,  Mrs.  Burton  —  Self-Training  for  Mothers: 
Chap.  VIII,  "Responsibility" 

Oppenheim,  N.  —  The  Develo-pment  of  the  Child: 

Chap.  VII,  "The  Value  of  the  Child  as  a  Witness  in 

Suits  at  Law"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "The  Development  of  the  Child  Crim- 
inal" 

Richmond,  Ennis  —  The  Mind  of  a  Child:  56-65 


TRAINING  IN  SOCIAL  RESPONSIBILITY  195 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  The  Child: 

Chap.  VI,  "Nature  versus  Nurture" 

Technical 

KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making: 
171-174 

Tracy,  Frederick  —  The  Psychology  of  Adolescence: 

Chap.    IX,    "Self-Consciousness    and    the    Social 
Order" 


43.    RELIGIOUS  TRAINING 

Religion  plays  an  important  role  in  the  development 
of  the  personality  and  character  of  the  child.  Yet  it  is 
impossible  at  the  present  time  to  formulate  either  a 
definition  of  religion  or  a  program  of  religious  training 
that  would  be  acceptable  to  the  majority  of  adults, 
whether  professional  students  of  the  subject  or  mere 
laymen. 

On  the  one  hand  we  find  theories  of  right  and  wrong 
closely  tied  up  with  religious  views,  traditions  and 
conventions.  On  the  other  hand  we  find  religious 
theories  intimately  associated  with  theologies  and  with 
speculations  concerning  the  ultimate  meaning  and 
nature  of  man  and  the  universe. 

It  has  seemed  best,  therefore,  to  present  the  most 
helpful  reference  books  on  the  psychology  of  religion 
and  on  religious  training,  leaving  it  to  the  individual 
and  the  group  to  adapt  the  deep  thought  and  the 
scientific  study  which  these  books  represent  to  their 
own  needs. 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Abbott,  Ernest  H.  —  On  the  Training  of  Parents: 
Chap.  VI,  "The  Beginning  of  Wisdom" 

FoRBUSH,  W.  B,  —  The  Coming  Generation: 

Chap.  VII,  "The  Religious  Life  of  the  Child"; 
Chap.  XXXII,  "The  Larger  Nurture" 

196 


RELIGIOUS  TRAINING  197 

Hartshorne,  Hugh  —  Childhood  and  Character 

Peabody,    Francis   G.  —  The   Religious   Education   of  an 
American  Citizen: 
Chap.  I,  "The  Rehgious  Education  of  an  American 

Child"; 
Chap.  II,  "The  American  Boy  and  His  Home" 

Non-Technical 

Adler,  Felix  —  Moral  Instruction  of  Children: 

Chap.  I,  "Problem  of  Unsectarian  Moral  Instruc- 
tion" 

Dawson,  G.  E.  —  The  Child  and  His  Religion 
Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Educational  Problems: 

"The  Religious  Training  of  Children" 
Haviland,  Mary  S.  —  The  Religion  of  a  Child: 

Pt.  VII,  "Character  Training  in  Childhood" 

Heathcote,  Charles  William  —  The  Essentials  of  Religious 
Education:  Chap.  VI-X 

James,  William  —  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience 

Ladd,   George  T.  —  The  Child  and  Religion   (Edited  by 
Thomas  Stephens) : 
Chap.  Ill,  "The  Child's  Capacity  for  Religion" 
NoRSWORTHY  AND  Whitley  —  The  Psychology  of  Childhood: 
Chap.  XIII,  "Sequent  Tendencies;  Moral  and  Re- 
ligious Development" 

Tracy,  Frederick  —  The  Psychology  of  Adolescence: 
Chap.  XIII,  "The  Rehgious  Life" 

Technical 

CoE,  George  A.  —  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals: 
Pt.  II,  "The  Child"; 

Chap,  XXII,    "Education   and   Rehgious  Present 
Problems" 


198  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

The  Psychology  of  Religion: 

Chap.  XIX,  "The  Religious  Nature  of  Man'' 
A  Social  Theory  of  Religious  Education 

Leuba,  James  —  Psychological  Study  of  Religion:  Pt.   Ill, 
Chap.  X 

McDouGALL,  W.  —  Social  Psychology:  Chap.  Ill,  V-VI 


44.    CIVIC  INTERESTS 

Civilization  is  an  outgrowth  of  man's  irresistible 
gregariousness,  which  compels  him  either  to  learn  to 
get  along  passably  well  with  others,  or  to  withdraw 
from  the  society  of  others.  The  process  of  learning 
begins  almost  with  birth,  but  it  is  not  always  continued 
to  the  point  of  making  a  person  both  an  independent 
spirit  and  an  acceptable  member  of  a  highly  complex 
community  —  two  ends  that  are  indispensable  if  life 
is  to  be  entirely  satisfying.  Through  his  contacts 
with  others  the  child  eventually  discovers  himself  as  a 
distinct  personality,  and  then  he  proceeds  to  attach 
those  others  to  himself  and  to  make  them  his  own  in  a 
very  real  sense. 

From  the  common  experiences  with  those  nearest 
him,  he  comes  to  identify  himself  with  them;  he  is 
sensitive  to  their  approval,  their  rebukes,  their  indiffer- 
ence; and  to  get  from  them  the  most  satisfying  reac- 
tions, he  is  willing  to  do  what  will  please  them,  he  learns 
the  meaning  of  service. 

As  the  child  extends  the  circle  of  his  acquaintances 
from  his  immediate  family  to  other  children  and  adults 
in  his  surroundings,  to  the  school,  the  gang,  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  as  he  learns  of  the  larger  community  of 
his  city,  state  and  the  human  race,  it  is  necessary  for 
him  to  enlarge  his  sympathies  proportionately,  if  he  is 
not  to  remain  an  outcast  hermit,  or  a  partially  socialized 
gangster,   or  a  narrow  provincial.     The  gang  is  im- 

199 


200  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

portant  in  cultivating  certain  social  virtues  of  attitude 
and  conduct;  the  large  community  is  essential  for 
broadening  and  harmonizing  the  interests  and  impulses. 

In  infancy  and  early  childhood  the  suggestibihty  of 
the  child  unconsciously  and  automatically  accepts  the 
leadership  of  the  adults;  but  as  the  child  comes  to  be 
aware  of  himself  and  to  experiment  with  himself,  ho 
becomes  disposed  to  challenge  arbitrary  authority;  and 
unless  completely  repressed,  will  persist  in  his  resistance 
to  tyranny,  whether  of  the  parents  or  of  the  school, 
whether  of  the  local  bully  or  of  the  political  usurper. 
In  a  democracy  the  child  should  always  have  before 
him  the  opportunity  to  choose  his  associates  and  his 
leaders,  if  only  for  experience  in  sampling  human 
beings  for  his  purposes. 

Even  young  children  have  sufficient  feeling  for 
regularity  and  order  to  accept  the  idea  of  a  rule  or  a 
law  as  guide  to  conduct;  and  from  infancy  this  can  be 
well  cultivated  through  a  fairly  rigid  routine  in  the 
details  pertaining  to  personal  health,  sleeping,  eating, 
etc.,  etc.  Children  readily  accept  rules  of  a  game  and 
it  is  important  for  them  to  learn  that  while  existing 
rules  are  to  be  obeyed,  both  laws  and  rules  are  practical 
devices  to  facihtate  human  affairs,  not  to  interfere; 
and  that  laws,  hke  rules,  are  subject  to  change  by 
established  methods,  as  changing  human  needs  dictate. 

Much  of  the  "lawlessness"  and  of  the  anti-social 
spirit  found  in  youth,  especially  in  the  larger  cities, 
may  be  avoidable  through  more  thorough  and  effective 
schooling.  But  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that 
much  of  it  is  simply  a  reflex  of  the  prevailing  attitude 
of  homes  and  of  prominent  members  of  the  community, 


CIVIC  INTERESTS  201 

whose  glaring  violations  of  the  welfare  of  others  are  not 
always  followed  by  the  traditional  wages  of  sin.  We 
cannot  expect  the  children  to  be  any  better  than  the 
rest  of  the  community.  We  cannot  expect  the  school 
to  counteract  altogether  the  prevailing  ideology.  We 
cannot  expect  the  teachers  to  produce  any  substantial 
change  in  the  attitudes  of  the  rising  citizenry  without 
the  wholehearted  and  energetic  support  of  the  rest  of 
the  community,  or  at  least  of  its  more  influential  frac- 
tion. 

OUTLINE 

1.  RELATION    OF   INDIVIDUAL   TO    OTHERS 

a.  Early  interest  of  child  in  other  people 

b.  Discovers  himself  because  of  others 

c.  Forms  attachments  to  most  intimates 

d.  Necessity  for  learning  to  adjust 

2.  DEVELOPMENT   OF   SOLIDARITY 

a.  Community  interest  with  own  people 

b.  Identifying  self  with  own  people 

c.  Desire  to  get  approval  and  to  please 

d.  Desire  to  serve 

3.  EXPANSION   OF   GROUP 

a.  From  family,  to  neighborhood,  etc. 

b.  Extension  to  school 

c.  The  socializing  effect  of  the  gang 

d.  Need  for  progressive  expansion  of  sympathies  and 

interests 

4.  RELATION   TO   LEADERSHIP 

a.  Suggestibility  of  child 

b.  Tendency  to  form  personal  attachments 

c.  Resistance  to  tyranny 

d.  Experience  in  selection  of  leaders 


202  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

5.  FROM    PERSONALITY    TO    LAW 

a.  Child's  love  of  regularity  and  regulation 

b.  Rules  of  the  game 

c.  Respect  for  law  vs.  fear  of  law 

6.  CIVIC    ATTITUDE 

a.  Reflection  of  home  and  community 

b.  Teachings  of  school 

c.  Public  spirit 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

Gould,  F.  J.  —  A  National  Need,  the  Civic  Spirit  in  Educa- 
tion 

Moore,  H.  H.  —  The  Youth  and  the  Nation: 

Chap.  IV,  "Should  the  Youth  Enlist?" 
Chap.  V,  "Choosing  of  Life  Work"; 
Chap.  VI,  "Preparation  for  Life  Work" 
Our  Complex  Civilization  and  the  Genius  of  Youth: 
School  Review,  XXIX,  617-627,  October.  1921 

Sharp,  D.  L.  —  Patrons  of  Democracy: 

Atlantic  Monthly,  CXXIV,  649,  November,  1919 

Non-Technical 

Beard,  C.  A.  and  M.  R.  —  American  Citizenship 

Dunn,  A.  W.  —  Citizenship  in  School  and  Out: 
Introduction,  1-23 

Technical 
Dunn,  A.  W.  —  Civic  Education  in  Elementary  Schools 
Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Educational  Problems:  II,  Chap.  XXIV, 
"Civic  Education" 


45.    THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  DEFICIENT 

Every  child  is  in  a  sense  exceptional.  Nevertheless 
our  studies  of  variations  among  children  would  never 
lead  to  any  practical  results  if  we  did  not  accept  as 
noiinal  those  children  who  show  only  slight  deviations 
from  the  average.  Over  half  the  children,  approxi- 
mately sixty  per  cent,  may  be  classed  as  normal  in  the 
sense  that  they  depart  from  the  theoretical  average  to 
an  extent  that  does  not  raise  problems  of  a  special  kind. 
The  rest  of  the  children  depart  in  var^'ing  degrees  from 
the  normal  in  one  or  several  respects  involving  special 
consideration  or  treatment.  We  must  recognize  that 
this  is  not  a  theoretical  matter  at  all,  but  one  purely  of 
satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  child  to  the  world  in 
which  he  has  to  live.  It  is  only  because  the  program 
which  is  fairly  satisfactory  for  the  average  child  fails 
in  practise  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  particular  child 
that  this  child  is  considered  exceptional.  The  use  of 
tests  is  to  facilitate  diagnosis  and  to  expedite  adjust- 
ment, not  to  discover  what  we  would  rather  not  know. 

The  most  obvious  shortcomings  are  those  of  a 
physical  nature  —  defective  vision  and  hearing,  crip- 
pled limbs,  speech  defects.  Children  with  these  short- 
comings should  not  be  segregated,  since  they  need  to 
learn  early  in  life  how  to  live  with  normal  people.  This 
does  not  mean  that  they  should  be  treated  precisely  as 
are  the  normal  children  in  the  schoolroom.  Obviously 
a  nearsighted  child  or  one  hard  of  hearing  should  have 

208 


204  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

a  front  seat.  When  these  defects  are  so  serious  as  to 
constitute  total  bhndness  or  deafness,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  separate  classes  in  an  ordinary  school,  so  that 
these  handicapped  children  may  have  the  opportunity 
of  mingling  with  normal  children  on  the  playground, 
etc.  Of  course,  remediable  defects  call  for  specific  treat- 
ment quite  apart  from  the  educational  service  supplied 
to  the  handicapped  child.  There  are  many  minor 
deficiencies  which  are  important  in  causing  mental  or 
educational  retardation,  and  children  who  suffer  from 
them  require  specialized  treatment. 

The  chief  cause  of  retardation  or  backwardness  is 
mental  deficiency,  of  which  there  are  many  degrees 
calling  for  different  kinds  of  treatment.  Children 
below  normal  in  mental  capacity  are  classified  as 
idiotic  where  the  mentality  does  not  develop  beyond 
the  two  or  three  year  level,  and  as  imbecile  where  it 
reaches  to  the  two  to  seven  year  level.  Such  children 
can  best  be  cared  for  in  institutions  and  should  be  sent 
there  no  matter  what  apparent  advantages  the  home 
may  offer.  It  is  important  for  parents  to  realize  that 
their  children  are  much  happier  surrounded  by  com- 
panions of  their  own  age  and  mental  development, 
and  in  an  environment  which  does  not  demand  too 
much  for  them. 

The  most  difficult  problem  is  that  of  the  "moron  "  — 
the  person  whose  mentality  lies  approximately  between 
the  ages  of  seven  and  twelve.  For  the  sake  of  the  child 
as  well  as  of  society,  it  is  important  that  morons  be 
recognized  and  that  their  capacities  and  limitations  be 
understood.  There  aie  as  many  varieties  among 
morons  as  among  normal  individuals.     With  care,  a 


THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  DEFICIENT         205 

useful  place  in  society  can  be  found  for  each.  What 
this  place  is  to  be  must  be  determined  by  individual 
study  on  the  part  of  specialists.  It  must  never  be 
forgotten  that  these  children  are  entitled  to  special 
supervision  since  they  present  problems  with  which 
their  parents  are  usually  unable  to  cope. 

In  regard  to  all  mentally  deficient  children,  it  may 
be  said  that  while  we  cannot  improve  their  mentality, 
we  have  reached  the  point  where,  by  a  recognition  of 
their  capacities  and  limitations,  we  can  so  place  them 
in  our  social  scheme  that  they  may  lead  happy  and 
useful  lives.  But  for  the  prevention  of  their  multi- 
plication, as  well  as  for  their  protection  against  dangers 
of  many  kinds,  the  feeble-minded  should  be  permanently 
under  custodial  supervision. 

OUTLINE 

1.  WHAT   IS   NORMAL? 

a.  Absolute  standards 

b.  Statistical  standards 

c.  Social  standards 

d.  Pedagogical  standards 

2.  PHYSICAL   HANDICAPS 

a.  Blindness 

b.  Deafness 

c.  Deformity  and  physical  inferiorities 

3.  REMEDIABLE  OR  PREVENTABLE  CONDITIONS  CAUSING  RE- 

TARDATION 

a.  Poor  eyesight 

b.  Poor  hearing 

c.  Infected  tonsils 

d.  Adenoid  growths 

e.  Bad  teeth 

f.  Speech  defects 


206  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

g.  Chronic  infections  —  chiefly 

Tuberculosis 

Syphilis 
h.  Malnutrition 
i.  Cardiac  deficiencies 

4.  FEEBLEMINDEDNESS 

a.  Causes  —  usually  hereditary 

b.  Grades 

(1)  Idiot 

(2)  Imbecile 

(3)  Moron 

c.  Basis  for  differentiating 

(1)  Development 

(2)  Performance 

(3)  Special  tests 

5.  NERVOUS   AND    PSYCHOPATHIC 

a.  Epileptic 

b.  Psychotic 

c.  Unstable 

6.  DISPOSITION   AND    TREATMENT 

a.  Value  of  early  recognition 

b.  Clinic  study  and  treatment 

c.  Distinction  between  permanent  and  curable  defects 

d.  Segregation  for  treatment 

(1)  Medical  or  surgical 

(2)  Pedagogical 

e.  Permanent  custodial  care  for  feebleminded 

(1)  For  sake  of  the  individual 

(2)  For  sake  of  the  community  and  the  race 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Ayres,  Leonard  P.  —  Laggards  in  Our  Schools: 

Chap.  XI,  "Physical  Defects  and  School  Progress" 
Campbell,  C.  Macfie  —  Nervous  Children  and  Their  Training: 

Mental  Hygiene,  III,  16-23,  January,  1919 


THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  DEFICIENT        207 

Dearborn,    Walter    F.  —  Facts    of   Mental   Hygiene  for 
Teachers: 
Mental  Hygiene,  III,  11-15,  January,  1919 

GoDDARD,  H.  H.  —  Feeblemindedness,  Its  Causes  and  Conse- 
quences: 
Chap.  I,  "Social  Problems"; 
Chap.  X,  "Practical  Applications" 

Groszmann,  M.  p.  E.  —  The  Exceptional  Child: 

Chap.  XXIII,  "General  Provisions  for  Variations 

from  Type"; 
Chap.  XXIV,  "Provisions  for  Exceptional  Children 

in  Schools  and  Institutions" 

HoLLiNGWORTH,  Leta  S.  —  Psychology   of  Subnormal  Chil- 
dren 

Morgan,  T.  —  The  Backward  Child 

Patri,  Angelo  —  The  Child  Who  Fails: 

Red  Cross  Magazine,  XV,  35-39,  February,  1920 

WooDROW,  H.  W.  —  Brightness  and  Dullness  in  Children: 
Chap.  I,  "Introduction"; 
Chap.  II,  "The  Measurement  of  Intelligence"; 
Chap.  Ill,  "Brightness  and  Dullness"; 
Chap.  V,  "Physical  Defects" 

Wright,  John  Dutton  —  What  the  Mother  of  a  Deaf  Child 
Ought  to  Know 

Non-Technical 

Blanton,   Margaret  and  Smiley  —  Speech  Training  for 
Children: 
"The  Hygiene  of  Speech" 

Bronner,  Augusta  F.  —  Psychology  of  Special  Abilities  and 
Disabilities 

Cameron,  Hector  C.  —  The  Nervous  Child 


208  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Holmes,  Arthur  W.  —  The  Conservation  of  the  Child: 
Chap.  V,  "Classification  of  Clinical  Cases"; 
Chap.  VI,   "Method   of  Classification   of  Clinical 
Cases" 

Lapage,  C.  Paget  —  Feeblemindedness  in  Children  of  School 
Age 

Technical 

GoDDARD,  H.  H.  —  Psychology  of  the  Normal  and  Subnormal 

Healy,  William  —  The  Individual  Delinquent:   447-589 

Kelyneck,  T.  N.  —  Defective  Children 

Tredgold,  a.  F.  —  Mental  Deficiency: 

Chap.  I,  "The  Nature  of  Mental  Deficiency"; 
Chap.  VIII,  "Feeblemindedness  in  Children"; 
Chap.  XVIII,  "Mental  Tests  and  Case  Taking" 

Wallin,  J.  E.  W.  —  Problems  of  Subnormality: 

Chap.  I,    "Changing   Attitude   Toward   the   Sub- 
normal"; 
Chap.  IV,  "The  Problem  of  the  Feebleminded  in 
Its  Educational  and  Social  Bearings" 
The  Mental  Health  of  the  School  Child: 
Chap.  XIV,  "The  Relation  of  Oral  Hygiene  to  Effi- 
cient Mentation  in  Backward  Children"; 
Chap.  XV,    "Methods   of   Measuring   the    Ortho- 
phrenic  Effects  of  the  Removal  of  Physical  Handi- 
caps" 
Handicapped  Children: 

American  Journal  of  School  Hygiene,   IV,   29-53, 
September,  1920 


46.     THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  — 
DELINQUENT 

The  children  and  adults  whose  conduct  does  not 
meet  with  the  requirements  of  social  living  have  been 
explained  in  a  variety  of  ways.  According  to  some,  the 
delinquent  represents  a  heritable  type  of  personality, 
or  a  person  whose  misconduct  is  directly  or  indirectly, 
due  to  physical  defects  of  constitution,  to  acquired 
disease,  or  to  mental  deficiency.  It  is  true  that  the 
deUnquents  show  a  large  proportion  of  physically  and 
mentally  deficient  personalities,  and  that  mental  and 
physical  deficiencies  are  inherited;  but  it  is  very 
questionable  whether  the  theory  of  a  criminal  type 
can  be  established.  At  most  it  may  be  said  that 
certain  types  of  personality  find  it  difficult  to  adjust 
themselves  to  life  in  a  complex  society,  and  that  near 
the  limits  these  types  do  not  adjust  themselves  at  all. 

It  is  found  more  helpful  to-day  to  consider  dehn- 
quency  as  a  mode  of  conduct  resulting  from  defective 
development  of  the  child's  system  of  habits  and  feelings. 
The  failure  to  acquire  the  desired  habit  may  be  due  to 
shortcomings  in  the  environment  or  to  forces  acting 
to  distort  or  pervert  the  behavior  into  undesirable 
forms.  Accordingly,  the  problem  becomes  one  of 
preventing  delinquency,  rather  than  of  segregating 
the  criminal  or  delinquent  types  early  in  life,  or  of 
penalizing  those  whose  way  of  living  is  repugnant  to 
the  common  sense  and  interests  of  the  community. 

209 


210  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Among  the  more  common  forces  making  for  delin- 
quency are  adverse  home  conditions — such,  that  is,  as  fail 
to  provide  the  child  at  each  stage  with  adequate  oppor- 
tunities for  self  expression  and  with  adequate  guidance. 
The  growing  child  must  acquire  a  technique  of  conti'ol 
of  materials  and  forces,  including  those  of  his  own 
body,  whereby  he  may  duly  impress  those  around  him 
in  a  way  that  brings  satisfaction  and  approval. 
Whether  this  technique  is  acquired  through  work  or 
play,  through  schooling  or  self  directed  activities,  it  is 
essential  that  it  takes  forms  which  are  socially  accept- 
able. The  alternative  is  a  spontaneous  or  fortuitous 
discovery  of  methods  for  obtaining  the  needed  satisfac- 
tions, and  these  methods  constitute  the  delinquent 
conduct  in  most  cases.  Not  alone  suitable  recreational 
opportunities,  but  the  companionship  of  adults  and 
other  children,  and  exposure  to  inspiring  and  stimulat- 
ing forces,  such  as  books  and  pictures,  speakers  and 
theaters,  churches  and  community  celebrations,  must 
play  a  part.  In  many  cases,  too,  delinquency  repre- 
sents a  mode  of  behavior  that  is  quite  normal  at  an 
earlier  stage,  but  not  suited  to  the  more  developed 
stages  of  living;  it  is  a  sort  of  arrested  development,  a 
retention  of  infantile  standards  and  ideals  and  habits 
that  should  be  outgrown. 

The  restoration  of  a  young  person  from  a  delinquent 
mode  of  life  to  one  that  is  socially  and  mentally  normal 
involves  first,  a  separation  from  the  earlier  environment 
with  its  accustomed  stimulations  and  suggestions  to 
objectionable  conduct,  and  second,  a  retraining  that 
will  establish  self  confidence  and  self  respect,  chiefly 
by  paeans  of  activities  that  permit  the  acquirement  of  a 


THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  DELINQUENT      211 

satisfying  control  over  the  self  and  over  the  environ- 
ment. Institutional  care  may  prevent  further  delin- 
quency, but  to  be  of  lasting  value  it  must  aim  at 
restoring  the  individual  to  normal  life  in  accordance 
with  his  special  needs  and  hmitations. 

OUTLINE 

1.  WHAT   IS   DELINQUENCY? 

a.  The  delinquent  as  a  type  of  human  being 

(1)  Criminal  type  theory 

(2)  Relation  to  physical  defects 

(3)  Relation  to  mental  defects 

b.  Delinquency  as  a  mode  of  conduct 

(1)  Meaning  of  maladjustment 

(2)  Specific  sources  or  direction  of  maladjustment 

Persons 

School 

Special  objects  or  activities 

(3)  Importance  of  early  years 

2.  PREVENTION    OF   DELINQUENCY 

a.  Adverse  home  conditions 

b.  Need  for  opportunity  for  self-expression 

(1)  Impulses  must  find  outlet 

(2)  Personality  must  impress  environment 

(3)  Play  and  work 

c.  Companionship  of  other  children  and  of  adults 

d.  Sources  of  inspiration  and  stimulation 

e.  Instruction  and  guidance 

3.  REHABILITATION 

a.  Isolation  from  early  environment  and  "temptation" 

b.  Opportunity  for  regaining  self-confidence  and  self- 

respect 

(1)  Recreation  and  social  contacts 

(2)  Experience  with  success 

(3)  Retraining 

c.  Shortcomings  of  institutional  methods 


212  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Addams,  Jane  —  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Studies  in  Education: 

First  Series,  "A  Bad  Girl's  Story,"  107-109 

Swift,  E.  J.  —  Mind  in  the  Making: 

Chap,  II,  "Criminal  Tendencies  in  Boys" 

Non-Technical 

GoDDARD,  Henry  H.  —  Juvenile  Delinquency 

Kenworthy,  Marion  E.  —  The  Logic  of  Delinquency: 
Papers  and  Proceedings  American  Sociological 
Society,  XVI.     1922 

Miner,  J.  B.  —  Deficiency  and  Delinquency: 

Chap.  X,  "Bad  School  Adjustment  as  a  Cause  of 

Delinquency"; 
Chap.  XI,  "Deficiency  as  a  Cause  of  Delinquency" 

Taft,  Jessie — Some  Problems  in  Delinquency:  Papers  and  Pro- 
ceedings American  Sociological  Society,  XVI.     1922 

Thurston,  Henry  W.  —  Delinquency  and  Spare  Time 

Technical 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence: 

Chap.  V,     "Juvenile     Faults,     Immoralities    and 
Crimes" 

Healy,  William  —  The  Individual  Delinquent: 
Bk.  I,  General  Data 


47.    THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  vSUPERIOR 

Some  children  show  very  early  in  Hfe  general  or 
special  abilities  of  a  high  order,  and  continue  for  many 
years  in  advance  of  others  of  the  same  age.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  early  ripening  of  ordinary  ability 
leaves  the  child  at  adolescence  a  disappointing  medi- 
ocrity, because  so  much  is  commonly  expected  of  him. 
It  is  difficult  ordinarily  to  distinguish  these  two  types 
of  precocity,  although  there  is  some  evidence  to  link 
the  latter  form  with  some  abnormality  in  the  glands  of 
internal  secretion.  In  any  case,  precocity  need  not  of 
itself  cause  alarm,  since  it  is  quite  compatible  with 
both  physical  health  and  mental  balance.  Where  it 
represents  high  degree  of  native  ability,  the  hereditary 
factor  is  probably  prominent;  but  we  must  remember 
that  "intelhgence"  is  not  a  "unit"  character,  depending 
on  a  single  germinal  determinant,  but  rather  the 
resultant  of  many  hereditary  elements. 

Occasionally  children  appear  that  are  for  the  m.ost 
part  indistinguishable  from  their  fellows,  except  for  a 
single  outstanding  talent.  The  excessive  development 
of  this  will  create  the  impression  and  produce  the  effect 
of  high  ability,  even  where  the  other  capacities  are 
decidedly  below  the  average.  The  cultivation  of 
special  talents  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  capacities 
and  interests  of  the  child,  as  well  as  upon  external  condi- 
tions that  make  such  cultivation  of  value.  There 
must  be  some  prospect  of  compensation  or  approval  to 
warrant  the  efforts  required  by  high  specialization. 

213 


214  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

The  recognition  of  ability,  whether  general  or 
special,  is  becoming  increasingly  important  for  both 
the  individual  and  the  community.  Genius  is  some- 
times suspected  where  there  is  nothing  but  a  speciahzed 
technique  of  self-assertiveness  or  some  nervous  dis- 
turbance. It  is  probable,  however,  that  in  many 
cases  a  high  degree  of  development  is  attained  as  a 
result  of  overtraining  or  overcompensating  for  some 
real  or  imaginary  defect.  The  child  of  exceptional 
ability  will  show  his  departure  from  the  ordinary  first 
through  the  delicacy  of  sense  perception  and  discrimina- 
tion, then  by  accuracy  of  muscular  coordination,  later 
by  the  activity  of  his  imagination,  and  in  the  highest 
reaches  by  ability  for  abstract  thinking  and  critical 
reaction  to  suggestions  that  come  to  him.  Mental 
tests  have  not  yet  been  refined  to  the  point  of  giving  us 
prompt  and  certain  indications  of  genius  in  very  young 
children,  but  as  far  as  they  have  gone,  they  are  of 
decided  value  in  diagnosing  the  more  common  useful 
capacities. 

It  often  happens  that  the  exceptional  child  of 
superior  abihty  needs  more  than  ordinary  attention  to 
his  health,  since  he  is  likely  to  be  easily  overstimulated. 
He  should  of  course  have  free  access  to  every  usable 
avenue  of  self  expression,  that  he  may  early  discover 
effective  media  in  which  to  work  and  play;  and  he 
should  have  the  advantage  of  association  with  satisfying 
and  stimulating  companions.  This  will  mean  in  many 
cases  that  children  of  superior  ability  should  be  segre- 
gated for  portions  of  their  time,  both  in  school  and  in 
some  of  their  play,  in  order  that  their  educational 
progress  may  be  commensurate  with  their  abilities. 


THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  SUPERIOR         215 

Such  segregation  carries  of  course  the  danger  of  develop- 
ing a  certain  unwholesome  arrogance  or  conceit;  this 
is  to  be  avoided  by  emphasis  upon  character  and 
service  rather  than  upon  intellectual  or  artistic  achieve- 
ment. Unless  these  children  of  genuine  superiority 
acquire  early  the  principle  of  noblesse  oblige,  society 
would  be  better  off  without  their  education. 

OUTLINE 

1.  PRECOCITY 

a.  Early  manifestations  of  ability  of  high  order 

(1)  General 

(2)  Special 

b.  Early  maturing  of  ordinary  ability 

c.  CompatibiUty  with  health  and  balance 

d.  Hereditary  factor 

2.  COMPENSATING    SPECIALIZATION 

a.  Development  of  single  talent  by  mediocre  individual 

b.  Factors  determining  specialization 

(1)  Native  capacity  and  interest 

(2)  Casual  stimulation  or  suggestion 

(3)  FeeUng  of  inferiority 

3.  RECOGNITION    OF   SPECIAL   ABILITY 

a.  Genius  versus  psychasthenia 

b.  Sequence  of  manifestations 

(1)  Sensory  impressions 

(2)  Muscular  coordination 

(3)  Imagination 

(4)  Abstract  thinking;  critical  ability 

4.  PRACTICAL   NEEDS 

a.  Protection  of  health 

b.  Free  access  to  means  of  self-expression 

c.  Association   with   satisfying   and   stimulating   com- 

panions 


216  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

d.  Opportunity  for  educational  progress  commensurate 

with  growth-capacity 

e.  Social  adjustment 

f.  Protection  against  development  of  conceit 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
.  Groszmann,  M.  p.  E.  —  The  Exceptional  Child: 

Chap.  VII,  "Exceptionally  Bright  Children" 
Terman,  L.  M.  —  The  Intelligence  of  School  Children: 

Chap.  XI,    "Case   Studies  of   Forty-One  Superior 

Children" 
An  Experiment  in  Infant  Education: 
Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  II,  219-228,  1918 
Wallin,  J.  E.  W.  —  The  Mental  Health  of  the  School  Child: 
372-380,  104,  128-129 

Non-Technical 
DoLBEAR,  Katherine  E.  —  Precocious  Children: 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XIX,  461-491,  1912 
•  Garrison,  Burke,  and  Hollingworth  —  Psychology  of  a 
Prodigious  Child: 
Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  I,  101-110,  1917 
Stern,  W.  —  The  Supernormal  Child: 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  II,  143-148,  181- 
190,  1911 

Terman,  L.  M.  —  Mental  Hygiene  of  Exceptional  Children: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XX,  529-537,  1915 

Whipple,  Guy  M.  —  The  Supernormal  Child: 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  II,  164-165,  287- 
288,  1911 

Technical 
Coy,  Genevieve  —  The  Mentality  of  a  Gifted  Child: 

Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  II,  299-307,  1918 


THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD  —  SUPERIOR         217 

Henry,  Theodore  S.  —  Classroom  Problems  in  the  Education 
of  Gifted  Children: 
Nineteenth  Yearbook  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Pt.  II 

McDonald,  R.  A.  F.  —  Adjustment  of  School  Organization  to 
Various  Population  Groups 

Race,  Henrietta  V.  —  A  Study  of  a  Class  of  Children: 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  IX,  91-98,  1918 

Terman,  L.  M.  —  The  Intelligence  of  School  Children: 

Chap.  X,  "Some  Facts  About  Fifty-Nine  Superior 
Children  " 

Whipple,  Guy  M.  —  Classes  for  Gifted  Children 


48.    MENTAL  HYGIENE 

The  mental  health  of  adults  depends  upon  a  com- 
plete unification  of  the  physical,  emotional  and  intel- 
lectual forces  of  the  individual;  its  foundation  must  be 
laid  in  childhood  —  or  rather,  it  is  a  process  which 
must  be  initiated  in  childhood  and  maintained  con- 
tinuously. While  the  energies  available  for  this  in- 
tegrating process  depend  decidedly  upon  the  physical 
organism,  the  health  of  the  latter  is  in  turn  influenced 
by  the  mental  and  emotional  disturbances.  The  unity 
of  spirit  is  both  a  means  of  successful  coping  with  the 
problems  of  life,  and  a  condition  for  getting  from  life 
its  full  measure  of  satisfaction. 

In  order  that  we  may  better  assist  the  child  in  the 
establishment  of  the  essential  mental  habits,  we  must 
first  understand  the  common  urges  and  desires  which 
dominate  us  all,  and  the  processes  by  which  these  forces 
come  to  be  both  for  the  individual  and  for  the  race  the 
means  for  the  highest  achievements.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  must  recognize  the  more  common  failures  in 
adjustment,  as  they  show  themselves  in  even  the 
youngest  children.  Escape  from  the  hardships  of 
reality  through  evasion  of  responsibility,  through 
resort  to  the  world  of  dream,  through  constant  ex- 
planation or  apology,  through  antagonism  to  the 
thinking  commonsense  of  others,  through  an  assump- 
tion of  weakness,  ignorance,  incapacity,  or  through  any 
other  method,  is  always  an  indication  of  some  dis- 

218 


MENTAL  HYGIENE  219 

harmony  between  the  various  desires  and  impulses  of 
the  child. 

The  task  of  parents  and  educators  consists  of 
insuring  to  the  child  means  and  opportunities  for 
organizing  and  modifying  the  innate  urges  and  cravings 
in  such  ways  as  will  make  possible  satisfying  self- 
expression  and  thereby  both  a  development  of  his 
capacities  and  their  concentration  upon  worthy  objec- 
tives. 

OUTLINE 

1.  IMPORTANCE    OF   MENTAL   HYGIENE 

a.  Relation  to  general  health 

b.  Relation  to  successful  adjustment 

c.  Relation  to  satisfaction  with  life 

2.  COMMON   SYMPTOMS    OF   MALADJUSTMENT 

a.  Shirking  of  personal  responsibility 

b.  Escape  from  reality  to  fantasy  or  day-dreaming 

c.  Overrationalization  of  conduct 

d.  Persistent  contrariness 

e.  Manifestations  of  inferiority  or  suspicions 

3.  NEEDS    OF    CHILD    AT   VARIOUS    STAGES    OF   DEVELOPMENT 

The  general  need  is  for  the  conditioning  of  instinctive 
or  spontaneous  activities  into  forms  that  are  both 
satisfying  to  the  individual  and  acceptable  to 
society,  or  suitable  for  later  development. 

a.  Babyhood 

(1)  Adjustment  of  seK-preserving  instincts 

(2)  Adjustment  of  pleasure-pain  or  sex  instincts 

b.  Pre-school  period 

(1)  Conflict  of  instinctive  cravings  with  adjust- 

ment to  family  relationship 

(2)  Necessity  for  establishing  standard  habite 


220  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

c.  Pre-adolescent  period 

(1)  Development  of  social  attitude 

Toward  other  members  of  the  family 
Toward  playfellows 
Toward  other  people 

(2)  School  adjustments 

Evaluation  of  individual  capacities  and  in- 
terests 
Recognition  of  individual  limitations 
Opportunity  for  successful  achievement 

d.  Adolescent  period 

(1)  Organization  and  unification  of  energies  of  in- 

dividual with  group  interests  and  ideals 

(2)  Aid  to  adjustment  through  self-understanding 

(3)  Recognition  of  possible  sources  of  conflict 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

Abbott,  E.  Stanley  —  Program  for  Mental  Hygiene  in  the 
Public  Schools: 
Mental  Hygiene,  IV,  320-330,  April,  1920 

Blanchard,  Phyllis  —  The  Adolescent  Girl 

Cameron,  H.  C.  —  The  Nervous  Child 

Campbell,     Macfie    C.  —  Nervous    Children    and    Their 
Training: 
Mental  Hygiene,  III,  16-23,  January,  1919 

Dearborn,  Walter    F.  —  Facts    of    Mental    Hygiene    for 
Teachers: 
Mental  Hygiene,  III,  11-15,  January,  1919 

Gesell,  Arnold  —  Mental  Hygiene  and  the  Public  School: 
Mental  Hygiene,  111,  4-10,  January,  1919 

Stern,  Adolph  —  Parent  and  Child: 

American   Medicine,    New   Series,    XIII,    145-151, 
March,  1918 


MENTAL  HYGIENE  221 

Non-Technical 

Miller,  H.  Crichton  —  The  New  Psychology  and  the  Teacher 

Richards,  Esther  L.  —  Some  Adaptive  Difficulties  Found  in 
School  Children: 
Mental  Hygiene,  IV,  331-363,  April,  1920 
The  Role  of  the  Situation  in  Psychopathological  Con- 
ditions: 
Mental  Hygiene,  V,  449-467,  July,  1921 

Stedman,  Henry  R.  — Menial  Pitfalls  of  Adolescence: 

Medical  and  SurgicalJ  our  nal,  CXXXII,  695-713, 
November,  1916 

Strecker,  E.  a.  —  Mai-Behavior  Viewed  as  an  Out-Patient 
Mental  and  Nervous  Clinic  Problem: 
Mental  Hygiem,  V,  225-238,  April,  1921 

White,  William  A.  —  Childhood:  The  Golden  Period  for  Men- 
tal Hygiene: 
Mental  Hygiene,  IV,  257-267,  April,  1920 

Technical 

Bronner,  Augusta  F.  —  The  Psychology  of  Special  Abilities 
and  Disabilities 


49.    MENTAL  TESTS 

Mental  tests  are  being  increasingly  used  with 
children  owing  to  the  realization  that  through  their 
use  one  can  gain,  in  a  short  time,  unbiased  information 
of  a  very  definite  nature  regarding  the  child's  mentality. 

About  1903,  Alfred  Binet  devised  the  first  practical 
test  for  obtaining  the  measure  of  a  child's  general 
intelligence.  His  big  contribution  to  the  subject  was 
the  standardization  of  tests  according  to  chronological 
age  of  normal  children.  Binet  made  no  attempt  to 
differentiate  the  various  types  of  ability.  These  tests 
were  found  to  fill  such  a  vital  need  that  they  have  been 
revised  for  use  in  many  countries,  and  are  still  in 
general  use.  The  generally  accepted  American  revision 
is  Terman's,  1916. 

Terman's  efforts  were  directed  toward  standardiz- 
ing the  tests  for  use  among  American  children  from 
three  years  of  age  upward.  For  this  purpose  over  ten 
thousand  children  were  tested.  These  tests  are  now 
used  in  many  schools  and  in  all  psychological  clinics 
for  preUminary  classifications.  By  this  means  children 
can  be  divided  according  to  their  mentality  into 
normal,  subnormal,  and  supernormal.  Although  the 
tests  do  not  pretend  to  throw  light  on  anything  but 
general  inteUigence,  they  do  give  some  information  as 
to  memory,  language  ability,  general  information,  etc. 
This  information,  however,  is  so  meager  that  it  is  useful 
only  as  a  guide  for  further  testing. 

222 


MENTAL  TESTS  223 

Reliable  as  such  tests  are  for  evaluating  general 
intelligence,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  they  should 
always  be  supplemented  by  additional  tests  for  special 
abilities. 

There  are  tests  for  mechanical  ability,  for  language 
ability,  for  general  information,  for  learning  ability, 
for  apperception,  for  musical  ability,  etc.  Of  all  tests 
of  this  type.  Seashore's  tests  for  musical  ability  have 
been  most  completely  worked  out. 

Special  ability  tests  should  enable  us  to  predict  the 
type  of  work  for  which  the  child  is  best  suited,  where 
there  is  a  decided  talent  or  limited  general  ability. 

Both  General  Intelligence  and  Special  Ability  tests 
can  be  called  Capacity  Tests;  in  contrast  to  these,  we 
have  Achievement  Tests.  The  latter  should  be  used 
in  all  schools  as  a  means  of  ascertaining  progress  in 
each  stud3^  By  their  uf-e  comparisons  can  be  made 
between  teachers,  methods  of  teaching,  and  the  effects 
of  varying  school  conditions  such  as  length  of  period, 
ventilation,  etc. 

These  Achievement  Tests  can  be  given  by  teachers 
with  little  or  no  special  training.  The  General  Intelli- 
gence and  Special  Ability  Tests  require  both  training  in 
test  giving,  and  a  grounding  in  psychological  principles. 

It  is  recognized  that  in  many  cases  various  obscure 
physical  and  emotional  factors  seriously  influence  the 
child's  performance  even  under  favorable  outward 
conditions;  accordingly,  the  interpretation  of  "Intelli- 
gence Quotient"  and  other  findings  should  be  left  to 
experts. 

Helpful  as  the  mental  test  has  proved  itself  to  be, 
many  new  and  better  tests  will  surely  be  developed  in 


224  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

the  years  to  come,  especially  those  dealing  with  the 
volitional  and  emotional  side  of  life. 

OUTLINE 

1.  USES 

a.  For  adjustment  of  individual's  progress 

b.  For  classification  of  groups  in  schools  and  institutions 

2.  HISTORY   AND    PRENCIPLE 

a.  Basis  of  Binet's  tests 

b.  Terman  revision 

c.  Army  tests 

3.  TYPES    OF   ABILITY   TESTS 

a.  Language 

b.  Manipulation  and  mechanical 

c.  Learning  ability 

d.  Musical 

e.  Mathematical 

4.  EDUCATIONAL   TESTS 

a.  Material 

b.  Standard 

5.  LIMITATIONS    OF   TESTS 

a.  Correlation  of  various  abilities 

b.  Relative  values 

c.  Emotional  factors 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Downey,  June  E.  —  Standardized  Tests  and  Mental  Inher- 
itance: 
Journal  of  Heredity,  IX,  November,  1918 

GiLLiNGHAM,  Anna  —  The  Bright  Child  in  the  School: 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  X,  237-252,  May- 
June,  1919 


MENTAL  TESTS  225 

Seashore  and  Others  —  Mentality  Tests:   A  Symposium: 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  VII,   163-167, 
229-240,  278-286,  348-360,  1916-1917 

Starch,  Daniel  —  Educational  Psychology 

Terman,  L.  M.  —  Intelligence  of  School  Children: 

Chap.  I,  "Some  Principles  of  Intelligence  Testing"; 
Chap.  XII,  "Intelligence  Tests  in  Vocational  and 
Educational  Guidance" 

WooDROW,  H.  W.  —  Brightness  and  Dullness  in  Children: 
Chap.  II,  "The  Measurement  of  Intelligence" 

Non-Technical 

Bronner,  Augusta  F.  —  The  Psychology  of  Special  Abilities 
and  Disabilities 

Dewey,  Child,  and  Ruml  —  Methods  and  Results  of  Testing 
School  Children:    Pt.  I 

Holling WORTH,  Leta  S.  —  Psychology  of  Special  Disability 
in  Spelling 

Seashore,  C.  E.  —  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent 

Technical 
Downey,  June  E.  —  Will-Temperament  and  Its  Testing 
PiNTNER  AND  Paterson  —  A  Scalc  of  Performance  Tests 
Starch,  Daniel  —  Educational  Measurements 
Terman,  L.  M.  —  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence 
Whipple,  G.  M.  —  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests 
Whipple,  G.  M.,  Editor  —  Intelligence  Tests  and  Their  Use 


50.     THE  FESTIVAL  IN  THE  CHILD'S 
EDUCATION 

The  festival  always  represents  a  joint  enterprise  that 
involves  planning  and  preparation,  that  arouses  the 
disposition  for  display,  and  that  finds  a  special  occasion 
or  pretext,  or  purpose.  Occasions  may  be  furnished  by 
patriotic,  rehgious,  historical  or  even  purely  senti- 
mental or  mythical  anniversaries  or  events.  The 
purpose  may  be  frankly  that  of  insuring  a  good  time 
for  the  participants  and  their  friends,  or  it  may  include 
some  remoter  beneficence,  such  as  the  gathering  of 
funds  for  some  worthy  cause  or  philanthropy. 

There  are  various  forms  which  such  joint  under- 
takings may  assume,  as  theatrical  performance,  pagean- 
try, pantomime,  "minstrel  show,"  a  bazaar,  or  country 
fair.  There  is  usually  an  element  of  the  carnival  spirit 
in  the  preparations  for  the  festival,  whatever  the 
eventual  form  may  be,  and  that  is  one  of  the  valuable 
features  from  an  educational  viewpoint. 

In  spite  of  being  a  joint  enterprise,  the  festival  offers 
excellent  opportunities  for  the  discovery  and  display  of 
individual  capacities.  Although  it  is  usually  a  very 
deUberate  and  elaborately  prepared  affair,  it  gives 
children  excellent  opportunities  for  spontaneity.  And 
while  it  is  designed  to  make  impressions  upon  others 
than  the  participants,  it  is  an  excellent  vehicle  for  self- 
expression.  The  elaborateness  of  the  plans  are  limited 
only  by  the  talents  and  resourcefulness  of  the  children. 

226 


FESTIVAL  IN   CHILD'S   EDUCATION  227 

Everything  that  they  learn  by  way  of  schooling,  and 
everything  they  can  do  in  the  way  of  inventing  and 
designing  and  executing,  whether  in  form  and  color  or 
in  materials  and  music,  finds  an  outlet  in  this  type  of 
"play." 

The  social  side  of  the  training  comes  from  the  need 
for  cooperation  and  teamwork,  from  a  conscious  divi- 
sion of  labor  with  the  consequent  need  for  giving  each 
participant  due  regard  for  his  services,  from  the  mani- 
festation of  differentiated  abilities  caUing  for  admiration 
and  appreciation.  Some  of  the  individual  gains  appear 
in  increased  self-confidence  and  poise,  improved  speech, 
experience  in  organization  and  in  the  technical  arts 
involved  in  the  production. 

So  great  is  the  value  of  such  experience  for  social 
and  esthetic  reasons  as  well  as  for  the  aid  it  gives  in  self- 
discovery,  that  every  community  should  promote  it 
through  extra-school  activities  as  well  as  encourage  it  in 
the  schools. 


OUTLINE 

1.  CHARACTERISTICS    OF   THE    FESTIVAL 

a.  A  joint  enterprise 

b.  For  a  special  occasion  or  purpose 

c.  Designed  for  display 

d.  Involving  preparation 

2.  TYPES   OF   FESTIVAL  WORK 

a.  The  play 

b.  The  pageant 

c.  The  pantomime 

d.  The  bazaar  or  its  equivalent 


228  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

3.  SKILLS    AND    KNOWLEDGE   APPLIED 

a.  Art  —  designing  and  execution  of 

(1)  Posters 

(2)  Invitations 

(3)  Costumes 

(4)  Scenery 

(5)  Properties 

b.  History 

(1)  For  details 

(2)  For  atmosphere 

c.  English 

(1)  Oral 

(2)  Written 

d.  Mathematics 

(1)  Financing  the  project 

(2)  Calculation  of  material,  space,  costs,  etc. 

e.  Business 

(1)  Advertising 

(2)  Organization 

(3)  Management 

f.  Music 

(1)  Vocal 

(2)  Instrumental 

g.  Physical  training 

(1)  Posture 

(2)  The  dance 

4.  VALUES   TO   THE    INDIVIDUAL 

a.  The  testing  of  the  abihties  of  self 

b.  Means  for  self-expression 

c.  Appreciation  of  talents  in  others 

d.  Poise 

e.  Better  speech 

f .  Experience  in  organization  and  cooperation 

g.  Training  in  independent  action 
h.  Awakening  of  community  spirit 

i.  Appreciation  of  beauty  in 

(1)  Thought 

(2)  I^anguage 

(3)  Music 


FESTIVAL  IN  CHILD'S  EDUCATION  229 

(4)  Color 

(5)  Form 

(6)  Movement 

REFERENCES 

Baker,  W.  —  Dramatic  Technique 

Bates  and  Orr  —  Pageants  and  Pageantry 

(Chapters  on  the  structural  elements,  history,  and 
subject-matter  of  a  pageant;    its    organization, 
staging,  etc.) 
Beegle  and  Crawford  —  Community  Drama  and  Pageantry 
(Pictures  of  pageant  stages  and  Greek  pageant  cos- 
tumes) 
Chubb,    Percival  — Festivals    and    Plays: 

Pt.    VI,    Chap.    XXIII,    "Dramatization    in    the 

Primary  Grades,  Types  of  Material,  Pantomime  "; 

Chap.  XXIV,  ''Dramatization  in  Primary  Grades, 

Dialogue,  and  Modified  Pantomime"; 
Chap.  XXV,  "Development  in  the  Middle  School, 

Grades  Four,  Five,  and  Six"; 
Chap.  XXVI,  "Method  of  Work" 
Langerfeld,  a.  —  The  ^Esthetic  Attitude 
Mackay,  Constance  D.  —  Costumes  and  Scenery  for  Ama- 
teurs 
(Pictures,  and  tells  where  to  get  patterns  for  cos- 
tumes for  American  pageantry;    contains  plates 
of  all  costimaes  from  Indian  days  to  the  present) 
Needham,  Mary  M.  —  Folk  Festivals:  Their  Growth  and  How 
to  Give  Them 
(Chapters  on  use  of  festivals  in  connection  with 
children's  games.    Elementary  treatment  of  popu- 
lar history,  of  familiar  holidays  and  characters, 
such  as  May-day  and  Pierrot.    Contains  bibli- 
ography) 


230  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Taft,  Linwood  —  The  Technique  of  Pageantry 

WiTHtNGTON,  RoBEKT  —  English  Pageantry: 

(Detailed  study  of  elements  of  pageantry  rooted  in 
early  customs  of  English  life;  extensive  bibli- 
ography) 

Books  on  Folk  Dancing 

BuRCHENAL,  ELIZABETH  —  American  Country  Dances 
Dances  of  the  People 

Crampton,  C.  Ward  —  Second  Folk  Dance  Book 

CuRWEN.  J.  —  Folk  Dances  of  Europe 

Fletcher,  Alice  C.  —  Indian  Games  and  Dances 

Lincoln,  Jennbtte  C.  —  Festival  Dance  Booh 

Woodcraft  Manual  for  Girls 


51.    COOPERATION  BETWEEN  SCHOOL  AND 

HOME 

For  the  more  effective  promotion  of  the  common 
aims  of  school  and  home,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  the  service  which  each  carries  on  of 
itself,  it  is  desirable  that  parents  and  teachers  cooperate 
more  systematically  than  they  have  heretofore  done. 
A  mothers'  club  can  do  many  things  that  will  be  helpful 
to  the  school,  just  as  a  teachers'  association  can  do 
much  to  advance  professional  spirit  and  the  technique 
of  teaching  and  school  management,  and  make  the  life 
of  the  teacher  and  pupils  happier.  But  an  association 
of  parents  and  teachers  will  find  to  hand  definite  tasks 
to  employ  the  resources  and  ingenuity  of  all  who  can 
or  will  give  their  services. 

It  is  desirable  that  through  such  an  organization, 
whether  formally  conducted  or  not,  the  teachers  and 
parents  become  thoroughly  acquainted  in  the  matters 
that  concern  them  jointly,  and  with  one  another's 
problems  and  methods,  with  the  possibilities  and 
limitations.  Among  the  common  problems  are  those 
of  securing  promptness  and  regularity  of  attendance; 
the  maintenance  of  standards  of  cleanliness  and 
appearance;  the  reporting  of  illness;  deciding  upon 
legitimate  excuses  for  school  absences  and  detentions; 
and  the  interpretation  of  school  reports.  For  each 
class  in  a  school  a  closer  and  more  intimate  approach 
between  the  parents  and  the  individual  teachers  should 

231 


232  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

do  much  to  clear  up  misunderstandings,  to  adjust 
programs  in  accordance  with  individual  needs,  to 
improve  working  conditions  both  at  home  and  in  school. 
The  school  and  home  should  recognize  the  need  of 
calling  in  the  expert  for  physical  as  well  as  mental 
problems.  Parents  and  teachers  should  learn  jointly 
to  make  use  of  the  light  the  experts  can  throw  on 
individual  problems.  This  gives  a  valuable  oppor- 
tunity for  working  and  thinking  together. 

A  parent-teacher  organization  will  find  opportunity 
for  exchange  of  services  mutually  beneficial.  Individ- 
ual parents  engaged  in  specialized  occupations  are 
increasingly  bringing  to  the  school  the  benefit  of  their 
experience  in  a  form  that  is  not  only  helpful  as  a 
contribution  to  ''vocational  guidance,"  but  helpful  as 
general  information  on  conditions  of  life  at  home  and 
abroad  and  on  various  aspects  of  scholarship  and 
research.  Groups  of  mothers,  who  generally  have 
more  time  at  their  disposal,  sei^ve  by  organizing  and 
guiding  excursions  from  the  school  to  points  of  historical 
or  industrial  interest,  to  farms  or  parks  and  museums, 
and  to  places  that  may  serve  purely  recreational  ends. 
Such  groups  may  also  help  materially  by  obtaining 
various  things  for  which  the  general  school  funds  do 
not  usually  make  provisions,  such  as  pictures,  phono- 
graphs and  records,  motion  picture  machines  and  films, 
additional  books  for  the  hbrary,  special  pieces  of 
apparatus,  plant  and  animal  material  for  nature  study, 
the  loan  of  materials  for  use  in  connection  with  various 
studies,  and  so  on.  Old  costumes,  furniture,  utensils, 
manuscripts,  pictures  are  often  thus  made  available  to 
the  great  enhancement  of  the  interest  in  and  effective- 


SCHOOL  AND   HOME  233 

ness  of  historical  studies,  geography,  literature,  biog- 
raphy, science,  and  so  on. 

Both  parents  and  teachers  can  come  to  recognize 
that  while  the  home  must  retain  its  primacy  in  society, 
the  school  must  assume  responsibility  for  certain  tj^Des 
of  leadership  since  it  is  through  the  school  that  society 
transmits  many  of  its  new  achievements  and  dis- 
coveries. Organized  cooperation  should  provide  a 
form  of  extension  teaching  whereby  both  parents  and 
teachers  may  become  acquainted  with  the  progress  of 
thought  and  research  in  fields  related  to  the  upbringing 
of  children.  Thus  lectures  may  be  arranged  on 
psychological,  social,  economic  and  educational  topics, 
conferences  with  leaders  and  specialists  on  various 
concrete  problems,  such  as  sex  education,  backward 
children,  mental  hygiene,  vocational  guidance,  the 
selection  of  college,  foreign  languages,  leisure  time 
pursuits,  educational  value  of  athletics,  and  so  on. 
With  increasing  leisure  on  the  part  of  adults,  and  in- 
creasing complexity  and  perplexity  of  educational 
problems,  there  seems  every  reason  for  more  of  the 
conamunity's  thoughts  and  talents  being  directed  to  the 
work  of  the  school. 

OUTLINE 

1.  THE   COMMON    PROBLEMS   AND    AIMS 

a.  Best  development  of  children 

b.  Most  favorable  adjustment  of  children 

c.  Economy  of  time  and  attention 

d.  Financial  aspects 

2.  MUTUAL  ACQUAINTANCE 

a.  What  teachers  need  to  know  about  the  homes 


234  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

b.  What  parents  need  to  know  about  the  school 

(1)  Punctuality  and  attendance 

(2)  Standards  of  cleanliness  and  appearance 

(3)  Health  supervision  and  reporting 

(4)  Detentions  and  other  penalties 

(5)  Interpretation  of  reports 

(6)  Legitimate  absences  and  excuses 

c.  What  both  need  to  know  about  particular  children 

(1)  Class-groups  of  parents 

(2)  Adjustment  of  individual  programs 

(3)  Modification  of  requirements  and  attitudes 

3.      EXCHANGE    OF   SERVICES 

a.  What  parents  can  bring  to  school 

(1)  Speciahzed  knowledge  and  experience 

(2)  Additional  services 

Help  with  excursions 
Luncheon  service 
Entertainments 

(3)  Supplementary  material  aid 

Loans  of  various  materials 

Gifts 

Funds  for  special  needs 

b.  Use  of  school  as  continuation-education  center  for 

parents  and  teachers 

(1)  Lectures 

(2)  Conferences 

(3)  Study  groups 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

'  Adler,  Felix  —  Moral  Instruction  of  Children: 

Chap.  V,  "The  Moral  Outfit  of  Children  on  Enter- 
ing  School" 
Allen,  Annie  Winsor  —  Home,  School,  and  Vacation:  1-21, 
54-65, 161-199 


SCHOOL  AND   HOME  235 

Allen,  William  H.  —  Civics  and  Health: 

Pt.  1,  Chap.  I,  "Health,  A  Civic  Obligation"; 
Pt.  II,   Chap.  XI,   "Nervousness  of  Teacher  and 
Pupil" 
''  Dewey,  John  —  Schools  of  Tomorrow: 

Chap.  VII,   "The  Relation  of  the  School  to  the 
Community" 
FoRBUSH,  W.  B.  —  The  Coming  Generation:  178-187,  275-285 
GiLLiNGHAM,  A,  —  One  Child's  Struggle  in  the  Preparation  for 
Life: 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XX,  343-359,  1913 
Griggs,  E.  H.  —  Moral  Education:   101-113 
Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Your  Child  To-Day  and  To-Morrow: 

24-27 
Latimer,  C.  W,  —  Girl  and  Woman: 

Chap.  IX,  "Daily  Life  During  School  Days" 
McCoNAUGHY,  James  L.  —  The  Home  and  the  School 
Swift,  Edgar  J.  —  Mind  in  the  Making: 

Chap.  Ill,  "The  School  and  the  Individual"; 
Chap.  IV,  "Reflex  Neuroses  and  Their  Relation  to 
Development" 
Thaler,  William  H.  —  Modern  Ideals  of  Child  Behavior, 
and  Their  Influence  on  American  Life: 
Education,  XLI,  141-151,  November,  1920 

N on- Technical 

King,  Irving  —  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development: 

Chap.  I,  "Child  Psychology,  Its  VaHdity  and  Aims" 

Technical 

^  KiRKPATRiCK,  E.  A.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study: 
Chap.  XVI,  "Individuality"; 
Chap.  XVIII,  "Child  Study  AppUed  in  Schools" 


236  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Pamphlets 

Study  Programs  —  San  Diego  Federation  of  Parent-Teacher 
Associations,  1920-1921 

Organization  Monograph  —  Parents  and  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion, Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abbott,  Ernest  H.  —  On  the  Training  of  Parents;  Hough- 
•         ton  Mifflin,  1908 

Abbott,  E.  Stanley  —  Program  for  Mental  Hygiene  in  the 
Public  Schools;  Mental  Hygiene,  IV,  320-330,  April,  1920 

Adams,  Morley  —  The  Boy's  Own  Book  of  Pets  and  Hobbies; 
Religious  Tract  Society,  London,  1912 
Toy  Making  in  the  Home;  Jack,  London 

^  Addams,  Jane  —  The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets; 
Macmillan,  1909 

^  Abler,  Felix  —  Moral  Instruction  of  Children;  Apple  ton, 
1892 
The  Punishment  of  Children;  Reprint  from  Ethical  Ad- 
dresses, Society  for  Ethical  Culture,  New  York,  April 
and  May,  1898 
Allen,  Annie  Winsor  —  Boys  and  Girls;  Atlantic  Monthly, 
June,  1920 
Home,  School,  and  Vacation;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1907 

Allen,  F.  J  —  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Occupations;  Harvard 
University  Press,  1921 

Allen,  William  H.  —  Civics  and  Health;  Ginn,  1909 

Angell,  James  Rowland  —  Some  Reflections  upon  the  Re- 
action from  Coeducation;  Popular  Science  Monthly,  LXII, 
5-26,  1902 

Anonymous  —  Organization  Monograph;  Parents  and  Teach- 
ers' Association,  Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York 
237 


238  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Study  Program;  San  Diego  Federation  of  Parent-Teacher 

Associations,  1920-1921 
A  Selected  List  of  Books  for  Children;  Federation  for  Child 

Study,  1920 
A  Young  Girl's  Diary;  Seltzer,  1921 
Coeducation  and  Marriage;  Journal  of  Heredity,  VIII,  43, 

January,  1917 
What  Scouts  Do;  Boy  Scouts  of  America,  1913 
Scouting  for  Boys;  Boy  Scouts  of  America,  1913 
Boy  Scouts  of  America;  Boy  Scouts  of  America,  1913 
Aemstrong,  D.  B.  and  E.  B.  —  Sex  in  Life:  For  Adolescent 

Boys  and  Girls;  American  Social  Hygiene  Association 

Armstrong,  J.  E.  —  The  Advantages  of  Limited  Sex  Segre- 
gation in  the  High  School;  School  Review,  XVIII,  338- 
350,  1910 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.  —  Laggards  in  Our  Schools;  Survey 
Associates,  1913 

Bach,  J.  S.  —  Chorales  (Selected  by  Bertha  Elsmith  and  T. 

W.  Surette) ;  Boston  Music  Company 
Sacred  Songs  (Arranged  by  Wallner) ;  Breitkopf  and  Hartel 
Bacon,  Mary  S.  H.  —  Songs  that  Every  Child  Should  Knov>; 

Grosset,  1915 
Bagley,  W.  C.  —  The  Educative  Process;  Macmillan,  1913 

Baker,  W.  —  Dramatic  Technique;  Harvard  University 
Press 

Ballard,  Anna  Woods  —  The  Direct  Method  and  Its  Appli- 
cation to  American  Schools;  Educational  Review,  LI,  447- 
456,  May,  1916 

Balliet,  T.  M.  —  The  Domain  of  Art  Education;  National 
Education  Association  Addresses  and  Proceedings,  1916, 
493-496 

Barnes,  Earl  —  Children's  Ideals;  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
VII,  3-12,  1900 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  239 

Punishment  as  Seen  by  Children;  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
III,  235-245,  1894 

Studies  in  Education,  Series  I  and  II;  Author,  Philadelphia, 
1897,  1903 

Bateman,  W.  G.  —  Some  Western  Ideals  in  the  High  School; 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXIII,  570-584,  1916 

Bates,  Esther  W.  —  Pageants  and  Pageantry;  Ginn,  1912 

Beagle  and  Crawford  —  Community  Drama  and  Pageantry; 
Yale  University  Press,  1916 

Beard,  C.  A.  and  M.  R.  —  American  Citizenship;  Mac- 
millan,  1915 

Beard,  Lina  and  Adelia  —  What  a  Girl  Can  Make  and  Do; 
Scribner,  1914 

Benedict  and  Talbot  —  Metabolism  and  Growth  from  Birth 
to  Puberty;  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  1921 

Berle,  a.  a.  —  The  School  in  the  Home;  Moffat  Yard,  1915 

Betts,  George  H.  —  Fathers  and  Mothers;  Bobbs  Merrill, 
1915 

BiGELOW,  Maurice  A.  —  Sex  Education;  Macmillan,  1918 

BiRNEY,  Mrs.  Theodore  —  Childhood;  Stokes,  1905 

Blanchard,  Phyllis  —  The  Adolescent  Girl;  Moffat  Yard, 
1920 

Blanton,  Margaret  and  Smiley  —  Speech   Training  for 
Children;  Century,  1919 

Bloomfield,   Meyer  —  Readings  in   Vocational  Guidance; 
Ginn,  1915 
Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1911 

BoGARDUS,  Emory  S.  —  Essentials  of  Social  Psychology;  Uni- 
versity of  Southern  California  Press,  1920 


240  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

BoNSER,  Frederick  G. —  School  Work  and  Spare  Time; 
Survey  Committee  of  the  Cleveland  Foundation,  Pub. 
No.  28,  1918 

BousEFiELD,  Paul  —  The  Elements  of  Practical  Psychology; 
Button,  1920 

Brewer,  J.  M.  —  The  Vocational  Guidance  Movement;  Mac- 
millan,  1916 

Brill,  A.  A.  —  Fundamental  Conceptions  of  Psychoanalysis; 
Harcourt  Brace,  1921 

Bronner,  Augusta  F.  —  Psychology  of  Special  Abilities  and 
Disabilities;  Little  Brown,  1919 

Brown,  Warner  —  Individual  and  Sex  Differences  in  Sug- 
gestibility; University  of  California  Publications  in  Psy- 
chology, 1916 

Bruce,  H.  Addington  —  Handicaps  of  Childhood;    Little, 

Brown,  1917 
Burbank,  Luther  —  The   Training  of  the  Human  Plant; 

Century,  1907 
Burchenal,  Elizabeth  —  American  Country  Dances;  Schir- 
mer,  1918 
Dances  of  the  People;  Schirmer,  1913 
Folk  Dances;  Schirmer,  1909 

Burk,  Caroline  Frear  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Educa- 
tion (Hall  and  Smith):  The  Collecting  Instinct;  Re- 
printed from  Pedagogical  Seminary,  VII,  179-207,  1900 

Bryant,  Sara  Cone  —  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children;  Houghton 
Mifflin,  1907 

Cady,  Calvin  B.  —  Music  Education;  Summy,  1904 

Calvin,  T.  —  Good  and  Bad  Reasons  for  Studying  Modern 
Languages  in  School;  Modern  Language  Journal,  V,  Oc- 
tober, 1920 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  241 

Cameron,  Hector  C.  —  The  Nervous  Child;  Oxford  Medical 
Publications,  1919 

Campbell,  C.  Macfie  —  Nervous  Children  and  Their  Train- 
ing; Mental  Hygiene,  III,  16-23,  January,  1919 

Cannon,  Walter  B.  —  Bodily  Changes  in  Pain,  Hunger, 
Fear,  and  Rage;  Appleton,  1915 

Cartwright,  Harriet  G.  —  Song  Treasury;  Macmillan, 
1920 

Chalmers,  Lillian  H.  —  Studies  in  Imagination;  Peda- 
gogical Seminary,  VII,  111-123,  1900 

Chambers,  W.  G.  —  The  Evolution  of  Ideals;  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  X,  101-143,  1903 

Chance,  Maria  S.  B.  —  Self  Training  for  Mothers;  Lip- 
pincott,  1914 

Chubb  and  Associates  —  Festivals  and  Plays:  Part  II, 
"Music  in  the  FestivaV  (Peter  W.  Dykema);  Harper, 
1912 

Clapp,  Henry  Lincoln  —  The  Development  of  Spontaneity, 
Initiative,  and  Responsibility  in  School  Children;  Educa- 
tion, XLI,  209-221,  December,  1920 

Coe,  Fanny  E.  —  First  Book  of  Stories  for  the  Story  Teller; 
Houghton  Mifflin,  1910 

Coe,  George  A.  — A  Social  Theory  of  Religious  Education; 
Scribner,  1918 
Education  in  Religion  and  Morals;  Fleming  Revell 
The  Psychology  of  Religion;  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
1917 

V  Comstock,    Anna    B.  —  Handbook    of   Nature    Study  for 
Teachers  and  Parents;  Comstock,  1914 
The  Pet  Book;  Comstock,  1914 


242  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

CoNKLiN,  E.  G.  —  Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Develop- 
ment of  Man  (Second  Edition) ;  N.  W.  Harris  Lecture, 
1914;   Princeton  University  Press,  1918 

CoNRADi,  Edward  —  Speech  Development  in  ihe  Child;  Peda- 
gogical Seminary,  XI,  328-380,  1904 

Cornell,  G.  A.  — Art  in  the  Kindergarten;  National  Educa- 
tion Association  Addresses  and  Proceedings,  1916,  307- 
310 

Coulter  and  Others  —  Heredity  and  Eugenics;  University 
of  Chicago  Press,  1912 

'     Crampton,  C.  Ward  —  Second  Folk  Dance  Book;    Barnes, 
1915 

Crandall,  Lee  S. — Pets,  Th  ir  History  and  Care;  Holt, 
1917 

Crile,  G.  W.  —  Man,  An  Adaptive  Mechanism;  Appleton, 
1916 

^  Curtis,  Henry  S.  —  Education  Through  Play;   Macmillan, 
1917 
Th    Boy  Scouts;  Educational  Reviiw,  L,  495-508,  1915 

CuRWEN,  J.  —  Folk  Dances  of  Europr;   Fischer 

Darw  n,  Charles  —  Life  and  Letters,  I ;   Appleton,  1903 

Davenport,  Charles  B.  —  The  Feebly  Inhibited:  Nomadism 
or   the   Wand  ring   Impulse   w  th    Specia'   Reference   to 
He  ed  y;   Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  1915 
Violen     Tempe     and   Its   Inherit  nee     Eugenics   Record 
Office,  Bulletin  No.  12,  1915 

Davison  and  Sueette  —  Rote  Songs;  Boston  Music  Com- 
pany 

Dawson,  G.  E.  —  The  Child  and  His  Religion;  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1908 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  243 

Dearborn,    Walter    F.  —  Facts    oj   Mental   Hygiene  for 

Teachers;   Menial  Hygiene,  III,  11-15,  Janua;y,  1919 
Dennett,  Mary  Ware  —  The  Sex  Side  of  Life;  Author 
Dennett,   Roger  H.  —  Exercise  and  Diet  in  Relation  to 
Growth;   New  York  Medical  Journal,  XCVII,  756-759, 
1913 
The  Healthy  Baby  {Revised  Edition);  Macmillan,  1922 

Dewey,  Child,  and  Ruml  —  Methods  and  Results  of  Test- 
ing School  Children;  Dutton,  1920 

Dewey,  John  —  How  We  Think;  Heath,  1910 

Imagination  and  Expression;   Teachers  College  Bulletin,  10, 

March,  1919 
Interest  and  Discipline;  Houghton  Mifflin,  19l3 
Is  Coeducation  Injurious  to  Girlsf   Ladies  Home  Journal, 

June,  1911 
Psychology;  American  Book,  1891 

School  and  Society  (Revised  Edition")  •  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press,  1915 

Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn — Schools  of  Tomorrow;  Dutton, 
1915 

Dickinson,  Georqe  A.  — Your  Boy:  His  Nature  and  Nurture; 
Doran,  1909 

Ditman,  N.  E.  —  Home  Hygiene  and  Prevention  of  Disease; 
Duffield,  1912 

Downey,  June  E.  —  Standardized  Tests  and  Mental  Inher- 
itances; Journal  of  Heredity,  IX,  311-314,  1918 
Will-Temperament  and  Its  Testing;   World  Book  Co., 
1922 

Downing,  E.  R.  —  The  Third  and  Fourth  Generation;   Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press,  1918 

Draper,  Andrew  —  Coeducation  in  he  United  States;  Edu- 
cational Review,  XXV,  109-129,  February,  1903 


244  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Drummond,  Margaret  —  Five  Years  Old  or  Thereabouts; 
Arnold,  1920 

Drummond,  W.  B.  — An  Introiluction  to  Child  Study;  Long- 
mans Green,  1912 

Dunn,  A.  W.  —  Citizenship  In  School  and  Out;  Heath,  1919 
Civic  Education  in  Elementary  Schools;  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  No.  17,  1915 

East  and  Jones  —  Inbreeding  and  Outbreeding;  Lippincott, 
1919 

Elliot,  J.  W.  —  Mother  Goose  Songs;  M<  Loughlin 

Ellison,  L.  —  Children's  Capacity  for  Abstract  Thought  as 
Shown  by  Their  Use  of  Language  in  the  Defini'ion  of 
Abstract  Terms;  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  XIX, 
253-260,  April,  1908 

Emerson,  R.  W.  —  Essay  on  Behavior; '  Houghton  Mifflin 

Evans,  Elida  —  The  Problem  of  the  Nervous  Child;  Dodd 
Mead,  1920 

Ewald,  Carl  —  My  Little  Boy;  Scribner,  1906 

ExNER,  Max  J.  —  Problems  and  Principles  of  Sex  Education; 
Association  Press,  1915 

Farnsworth,  C.  H.  —  How  to  Sudy  Music;  Macmillan, 
1920 

Field,  Walter  T.  —  Fingerposts  to  Children's  Reading; 
McClurg,  1914 

Filene,  Catherine  —  Careers  for  Women;  Houghton  Mif- 
flin, 1919 

Finck,  Hervey  T.  —  Why  Coeducation  is  Losing  Ground; 
Independent,  LV,  301,  361,  February  5,  12,  1903 

Fink,  Henry  T.  —  Fifty  Masters  Songs  by  Twenty  Com- 
posers; Ditson,  1903 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  245 

Fisher,  Dorothy  —  A  Montessori  Mother;  Holt,  1912 
Mothers  and  Children;  Holt,  1915 

Fisher,  L.  —  Health  Care  of  the  Baby;  Funk  and  Wagnalls, 
1915 
Health  Care  of  the  Growing  Child;  Funk  and  Wagnalls,  1915 

Fletcher,  Alice  C.  —  Ind'an  Games  and  Dances;  Birchard, 
1915 

FoERSTER,  F.  W.  —  Marriage  and  the  Sex  Problem;  Stokes, 
1912 

FoRBusH,  W.  B.  —  Manual  of  Play;  American  Institute  of 
Child  Life,  1914 
The  Boy  Problem;  Pilgrim  Press,  1913 
The  Coming  Generation;  Appleton,  1913 

FoREL,  August  —  The  Sexual  Question;  Rebman 

France  and  Kline  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education 
(Hall  and  Smith):  The  Psychology  of  Ownership;  Re- 
printed from  Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  421-470,  1899 

Frink,  H.  W.  —  Morbid  Fears  and  Compulsions;  Moffatt 
Yard,  1918 

Gale,  Zona  —  What  of  Coeducation?  Atlantic  Monthly,  July, 
1914 

Gallichan,  Walter  M.  —  Sex  Education;  Small  Maynard, 
1921 

Galloway,  T.  W.  —  Biology  of  Sex  for  Parents  and  Teachers; 
Heath,  1913 

Galloway,  T.  W.  —  The  Father  and  His  Boy;  Association 
Press,  1921 

Gardiner,  Ruth  Kimball —  Your  Daughter's  Mother;  Amer- 
ican Social  Hygiene  Association,  1921 

Garrett,  Laura  B. — Animal  Families  in  School;  Bureau 
of  Educational  Experiments,  Bulletin  No.  2 


246  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Gault,  Robert  H.  —  Suggestion  and  Suggestibility;   Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Sociology,  XXV,  185-194,  1919 

Geddes  and  Thomson  —  Sex;  Holt,  1914 

Gesell,  Arnold  —  Me7ital  Hygiene  and  the  Public  School; 
Mental  Hygiene,  III,  4-10,  January,  1919 

GiLLiNGHAM,  Anna  —  One  Child's  Struggle  in  the  Preparation 
for  Life;  Pedagogical  Seminary,  XX,  343-359,  1913 
The  Bright  Child  and  the  School;   Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  X,  237-252,  May,  June,  1919 

GiLMAN,  Charlotte  P.  —  Concerning  Children;  Small  May- 

nard,  1900 
GoDDARD,   Henry  H.  —  Feehlemindedness,   Its  Causes  and 
Consequences;  Macmillan,  1914 
Juvenile  Delinquency;  Dodd  Mead,  1921 
Psychology  of  the  Normal  and  Subnormal;   Dodd  Mead, 
1918 
Gould,  F.  J.— A  National  Need,  The  Civic  Spirit  in  Edu- 
cation; Moral  Education  League,  London,  1913 
Moral  Instruction  in  Theory  and  Practice;  Longmans  Green, 
1913 
GowTN  AND  Wheatley  —  Occupotions;  Ginn,  1916 
Griggs,  Edward  H.  —  Moral  Education;  Huebseh,  1916 

Groos,  Karl  —  Play  of  Man;  Appleton,  1901 

The  Play  of  Animals;   Appleton,  1898 
Groszmann,  M.  p.  E.  —  The  Exceptional  Child;   Scribner, 

1917 
Gruenbbrg,  Benjamin  C.  —  The  Parent  and  Sex  Education; 
I.  Children  Under  School  Age;  American  Social  Hygiene 

Association,  1922 
High  Schools   and  Sex  Education;   U.  S.  Public   Health 
Service,  1922 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  247 

Gruenberg,  S.  M.  —  Sons  and  Daughters;  Holt,  1916 
Your  Child   To-Day  and    To-Morrow   (Second  Edition); 
Lippincott,  1920 

GuLicK,  Luther  M. — Exercise  and  Rest;  Russell  Sage  Foun- 
dation, Department  of  Child  Hygiene 
Psychological,  Pedagogical,  and  Religious  Aspects  of  Group 
Games;  Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  135-151,  1898 

GuYER,  Michael  —  Being  Well  Born;  Bobbs  Merrill,  1916 

Hadow,  W.  H.  —  Songs  of  the  British  Islands;  Curwen 

Hall,  Florence  Marion  —  Boys,  Girls,  and  Manners; 
Estes,  1913 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence;  Appleton,  1904 
A  Genetic  Study  of  Fear;  American  Journal  of  Psychology, 

XXV,  149,  1914 
Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education;  Appleton,  1921 
Educational  Problem;  Appleton,  1911 
Some  Psychological  Aspects  of  Teaching  Modern  Language; 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXI,  256-263,  1914 
Youth,  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hygiene;  Appleton, 

1914 

Hall  and  Smith  —  Curiosity  and  Interest;  Pedagogical  Sem- 
inary, X,  314-358,  1903 

Hall  and  Wiltse  —  Children's  Collections;  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  I,  234-237,  1891 

Hall  and  Others  —  Museums  of  Art  and  Teachers  of  His- 
tory; Scribner,  1913 

Handschin,  C.  H.  —  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in 
the  United  States;  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin 
No.  3,  1913 

Harper,  Ida  H.  —  The  Permanency  of  Coeducation;  Inde- 
pendent, LV,  606-608,  March  12,  1903 


248  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Hartshorne,  Hugh  —  Chi'dhood  and  Character:  An  Intro- 

duciion  to    he  Siudy  of  the  Religious  Life  of  Children; 

Pilgrim  Press,  1919 
Hartson,  L.  D.  —  The  Psychology  of  Ihe  Club;  Pedagogical 

Seminary,  XVIII,  353-414,  1911 
Harvey  and  Others  —  Imaginary  Playmates;  Author,  1918 
Haviland,  Mary  S.  —  The  Religion  of  a  Child;  Small  May- 

nard,  1921 
Healy,  William  —  Mental  Conflicts  and  Misconduct;  Little 

Brown,  1917 
The  Individual  Delinquent;  Little  Brown,  1918 

Heathcote,  Charles  W.  —  The  Essentials  of  Religious  Edur- 

cation;   Sherman  French,  1916 
Heller,    Harriet    Hickox  —  Thumb-Sucking;    American 

Institute  of  Child  Life,  Monograph  No.  282,  1914. 

Henderson,  C.  Hanford  —  What  Is  It  to  Be  Educated? 
Houghton  Mifflin,  1914 

Henry,  Theodore  S.  —  Classroom  Problems  in  the  Education 
of  Gifted  Children;  Nineteenth  Yearbook  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Pt.  II,  1920,  Public 
School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  111. 

HiCHMAN,  F.  A.  —  Soft  Toys  and  Hotv  to  Make  Them;  Scott, 

1917 
Hills,    D.    S.  —  Comparative   Study   of  Children's   Ideals; 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  XVIII,  219-231,  1911 

Hodge,  Clifton  —  Nature  Study  and  Life;  Ginn,  1902 

HoERLE  AND  Saltzberg  —  The  Girl  and  the  Job;  Holt,  1919 

Hollingworth,  Leta  S.  —  Psychology  of  Special  Disability 
in  Spelling;  Teachers  College  Contribution  to  Education, 
1918 
Psychology  of  Subnormal  Children;  Macmillan,  1920 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  249 

Holmes,  Arthur  — Principles  of  Character  Making;  Lippin- 
cott,  1913 
The  Conservatism  of  the  Child;  Lippincott,  1912 

Holt,  Edwin  B.  —  The  Freudian  Wish;  Holt,  1915 

Holt,   L.   Emmett  —  The  Care  and  Feeding  of  Children; 
Appleton,  1920 

HoLTZ,  Frederick  L.  —  Nature  Study;  Scribner,  1908 

Hoobler,    Raymond  —  Diseases  Influencing  Growth;  New 
York  Medical  Journal,  XCVH,  769-771,  April  12,  1913 

Hood,  Mary  G.  —  For  Girls  and  the  Mothers  of  Girls;  Bobbs 

Merrill,  1914 
Hough,  Emerson  —  Out  of  Doors;  Appleton,  1915 
HuBBBLL,  L.  E.  —  The  Child  and  His  Room;   The  House 

Beautiful,  XLVH,  358-362,  April,  1920 
Hughes,  James  L.  —  FroebeVs  Educational  Laws;  Appleton, 

1897 
Hunt,    Clara   W.~What    Shall   We    Read  to   Children? 

Houghton  Mifflin,  1915 
HuRLL,  Estelle  May  —  How  to  Show  Pictures  to  Children; 

Houghton  Mifflin,  1914 
James,  William  —  Moral  Equivalent  of  War;  Kindergarten 

Magazine,  XXH,  291-294,  308-312,  May,  June,  1910 
Talks  to  Teachers;  Holt,  1916 
Varieties  of  Religious  Experience;  Longmans  Green,  1902 

Jennings,  Watson,  Meyer  and  Thomas  —  Suggestions  of 
Modern  Science  Concerning  Education;  Macmillan,  1917 

Johnson,    George   E.  —  Education   by   Play   and   Games; 
Ginn,  1907 
Toys  and  Toy  Making;  Longmans  Green,  1912 

,  Jordan,  David  Starr  —  Care  and  Culture  of  Men;  Wagner 
Harr,  1917 


250  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Kedson  and  Neal  —  English  Folk  Song  and  Dance;  Cam- 
bridge University  Press 
Kelyneck,  Theophilus  —  Defective  Children;  Wood,  1915 

Kent,  Ernest  B.  —  The  Constructive  Interests  of  Children; 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1903 

Ken  WORTHY,  Marion  E.  —  The  Logic  of  Delinquency; 
Papers  and  Proceedings  American  Sociological  Society, 
XVI,  1922 

Kerr,  LeGrand  —  Care  and  Training  of  Children;  Funk 
and  Wagnalls,  1910 

KiLPATRiCK,  William  H.  —  Horace  Mann  Studies  in  Primary 
EdvA^ation;  Teachers  College  Record,  March,  1919 
Project  Method;  Teachers  College  Record,  October  12,  1918 

King,  Irving  —  The  High  School  Age;  Bobbs  Merrill,  1914 
The    Psychology    of    Child    Development;    University    of 

Chicago  Press,  1903 
Social  Aspects  of  Mental  Development;  Macmillan,  1912 

Kinne  and  Cooley  —  Clothing  and  Health;  Macmillan,  1916 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  a.  —  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study;  Mac- 
millan, 1917 

Studies  in  Development  and  Learning;  Archives  of  Psychol- 
ogy, II,  4-21,  54-57,  65-66,  68-70,  79-85,  88-101,  March, 
1909 

The  Individual  in  the  Making;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1912 

The  Use  of  Money;  Bobbs  Merrill,  1915 

Kirtley,  J.  S.  —  That  Boy  of  Yours;  Doran,  1912 

Kline,  L.  W. — Migratory  Impulse  versus  Love  of  Home; 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  X,  1-81,  1898 
Truancy  as  Related  to  the  Migrating  Instinct;   Pedagogical 
Seminary,  V,  381-420,  1898 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  251 

Kline  and  France  —  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education 
(Hall  and  Smith):  The  Psychology  of  Ownership;  Re- 
printed from  Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  421-470,  1899 

Koch,  Fritz  —  Paper  Toys  and  How  to  Make  Them;  Koch 
Paper  Toy  Company,  Philadelphia 

Krause,  Carl  A.  —  Why  the  Direct  Method  for  a  Modern 
Language?   Educational  Review,  LI,  254-267,  1916 

Ladd,  George  T.  —  The  Child  and  Religion;  Putnam 

Langerfeld,  a.  —  The  Esthetic  Attitude;  Harcourt  Brace, 
1920 

La  Page,  C.  Paget  —  Feeblemindedness  in  Children  of  School 
Age;  Longmans  Green,  1911 

Latham,  H.  L.  —  A  Study  of  Falsehood;  Pedagogical  Semi- 
nary, XXI,  504-522,  1914 

Latimer,  Caroline  W.  —  Girl  and  Woman;  Appleton,  1909 

Laurie,  Simon  S.  —  Lectures  on  Language  and  Linguistic 
Method  in  the  School;  Simpkins  Marshall,  1893 

Lay,  Wilfrid  —  The  Child's  Unconscious  Mind;  Dodd 
Mead,  1919 

Lee,  Joseph  —  Play  in  Education;  Macmillan,  1918 

Leonard,  Eugenie  A.  —  A  Parent's  Study  of  Children's  Lies; 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  XXVII,  105-136,  Jmie,  1920 

Leuba,  James  —  A  Psychological  Study  of  Religion;  Mac- 
millan, 1912 

Long,  Constance  —  Psychology  of  Phantasy;  Balliere  Tin- 
dall  and  Cox,  1920 

Lord,  Herbert  Gardiner  —  Psychology  of  Courage;  Luce, 

1918 
Lowe,  Orton  —  Literature  for  Children;  Macmillan,  1914 

Lyman,  Edna  —  Story  Telling:  What  to  Tell  and  How  to 
Tell  It;   McClurg,  1915 


252  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Mackenzie,  R.  T.  —  Exercise  in  Education  and  Medicine; 
Saunders,  1917 

McCoNAUGHT,  James  L.  —  The  Home  and  the  School;  Jour- 
nal of  Education,  March,  1919 

McDonald,  R.  A.F.  —  Adjustment  of  School  Organization  to 
Various  Population  Groups;  Teachers  College  Contri- 
butions to  Education,  1915 

McDougall,  William  —  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychol- 
ogy; Luce,  1921 

Mackay,  Constance  D.  —  Costume  and  Scenery  for  Ama- 
teurs;  Holt,  1915 

Macy,  John  —  A  Guide  to  Reading;  Doubleday  Page,  1913 

Marot,  Helen  —  The  Creative  Impulse  in  Industry:  A 
Proposition  for  Educators;   Button,  1918 

Mason,  D.  G.  —  A  Child's  Guide  to  Music;  Baker,  1910 

Mendel,  Lafayette  B.  —  Nutrition  and  Growth;  Harvey 
Lectures,  X,  101-131,  1915 

Mill,  John  Stuart  —  Autobiography;  Holt 

Miller,  Charles  M.  —  Kitecraft;  Manual  Arts  Press 

Miller,  H.  Crichton  —  The  New  Psychology  and  the 
Teacher;  Jarrolds,  1921 

Miner,  J.  B.  —  Deficiency  and  Delinquency;  Warwick  and 
York,  1918 

Moll,  Albert  —  The  Sexual  Life  of  the  Child;  Macmillan, 
1921 

Monroe,   Paul  —  Encyclopedia  of  Education;  Macmillan, 
1911 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education;  Macmillan,  1914 

Monroe,  William  S.  —  The  Money  Sense  of  Children; 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  VI,  152-158,  1899 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  253 

MoNTESSORi,  Maria  —  The  Montessori  Method;  Stokes,  1912 

Moore,  Annie  Carroll  —  Roads  to  Childhood;  Doran,  1920 

Moore,  Harry  H,  —  Our  Complex  Civilization  and  the  Genius 
of  Youth;  School  Review,  XXIX,  617-627,  October,  1921 
The  Youth  and  the  Nation;  Macmillan,  1917 

Moore,  Harris  W.  —  Manual  Training  Toys  for  the  Boy's 
Workshop;  Manual  Arts  Press,  1912 

Morgan,  T.  —  The  Backward  Child;  Putnam,  1914 

Morgan,  Thomas  Hunt  —  The  Physical  Basis  of  Heredity; 
Lippincott,  1919 

Moses,    Montrose    J,  —  Children's   Books   and   Reading; 
Mitchell  Kennerley,  1907 

Mosso,  Angelo  —  Fear;  Longmans  Green,  1896 

Murray  and  Smith  —  Child  Under  Eight;  Arnold,  1919 

Needham,  Mary  M.  —  Folk  Festivals:  Their  Growth  and 
How  to  Give  Them;  Huebsch,  1912 

Nice,  Margaret  M.  —  A  Child's  Imagination;  Pedagogical 

Seminary,  XXVI,  173-201,  June,  1919 
Norsworthy  and  Whitley  —  The  Psychology  of  Childhood; 

Macmillan,  1918 
Olcott,  Frances  J.  —  The  Children's  Reading;  Houghton 

Mifflin,  1912 
Oppenheim,  N,  —  The  Development  of  the  Child;  Macmillan, 

1898 

O'Shea,  Michael  Vincent  —  Everyday  Problems  in  Child 
Training;  Parents  Library,  Drake,  1920 
Social  Development  and  Education;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1909 

Page,  Kate  Stearns  —  Rohinhood;  Boston  Music  Company 

Pare:er,  Samuel  Chester  —  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High 
Schools;  Ginn,  1915 


254  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Patri,  Angelo  —  The  Child  Who  Fails;  Red  Cross  Magazine, 
XV,  February,  1920 

Patterson,  Herbert  P.  —  The  Logical  Problem  of  Co- 
education; Education,  XXXVII,  112-115,  1916 

Peabody,  Francis  G.  —  The  Religious  Education  of  an 
American  Citizen;  Macmillan,  1918 

Peabody,  James  E.  —  Some  Experiments  in  Sex  Education 
in  the  Home  and  High  School:  American  Social  Hygiene 
Association,  1921 

Pfister,  Oscar  —  The  Psychoanalytic  Method;  Moffat  Yard, 

1919 
PiNTNER  AND  Patbrson  —  A  ScaU  of  Performance  Tests; 

Appleton,  1917 
Polkinhorne,  Ruby  K.  and  Mabel  I.  —  Toy  Making  in 

School  and  Home;  Hubbell  Sea  vers,  1916 
Puffer,  J.  Adams  —  The  Boy  and  His  Gang;  Houghton 

Mifflin,  1912 
Ramsey,  W.  R.  —  Care  and  Feeding  of  Infants  and  Children; 

Lippincott,  1916 

Rasmussen,  Vilhelm  —  Child  Psychology,  I:  Development 
in  the  Fir  si  Four  Years;   Gyldendal,  1920 

Read,  Mary  L.  —  Mothercraft  Manual;  Little  Brown,  1916 

Rice,  Richard,  Jr.  —  The  Educational  Value  of  Coeducation; 
Independent,  LXXIII,  1304-1306,  December  5,  1912 

Richards,  Albertina  A.  —  Motive  in  Education;  Pedagog- 
ical Seminary,  XXVIII,  60-72,  1921 

Richards,  Esther  L.  —  Some  Adaptive  Difficulties  Found  in 
School  Children;    Mental  Hygiene,  IV,  331-363,  April, 
1920 
The  Role  of  the  Situation  in  Psychopathological  Conditions; 
Mental  Hygiene,  V,  449-467,  July,  1921 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  255 

Richmond,  Ennis  —  The  Mind  of  a  Child;  Longmans  Green, 

1902 
Rose,  M.  S.  —  Feeding  the  Family;  Macmillan,  1917 
RowE,  S.  H.  —  Fear  in  the  Discipline  of  Children;  Outlook, 

LX,  September  24,  1898 
Sandiford,  Peter  —  The  Mental  and  Physical  Life  of  School 

Children;  Longmans  Green,  1915 
Sarg,  Tony  —  The  Marionette  Book;  Huebsch,  1921 
Schneider,    Herman  —  Readings   in    Vocational   Guidance 

(Meyer  Bloomfield) :  Selecting  Young  Men  for  Particular 

Jobs;  Ginn,  1915 
Scott,  Colin  A.  —  Social  Education;  Ginn,  1908 
Sears,  C.  H.  —  Home  and  School  Punishments;  Pedagogical 

Seminary,  VI,  159-187,  1899 
Seashore,  Carl  E. — (Editor)  Mentality  Tests,  A  Symposium; 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  VII,  163-166,  229-240, 

278-286,  348-360 
(Author)  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent;  Silver  Burdett,  1919 
Seton,  Ernest  Thompson  —  Woodcraft  Manual  for  Boys; 

Doubleday  Page,  1918 
Woodcraft  Manual  for  Girls;  Doubleday  Page,  1918 

Seymour,  Harriet  A.  —  What  Music  Can  Do  for  You:  A 

Guide  for  the  Uninitiated;  Harper,  1920 
Sharp,  Cecil  J.  —  An  Introduction  to  the  English  Country 

Dance;  Novell© 
Folk  Songs,  Chanteys  and  Singing  Games;  Novello 

Sharp,  Dallas  L.  —  Education  for  Individuality;   Atlantic 
Monthly,  June,  1920 
Patrons  of  Democracy;  Atlantic  Monthly,  November,  1919 

Sheldon,  H.  D.  —  The  Institutional  Activities  of  American 
Children;  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  IX,  425-448, 
July,  1898 


256  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

SiDis,  Boris  —  Fear,  Anxiety,  and  Psychopathic  Maladies; 
Journal  of  Abnormal  Psychology,  VI,  107,  1911-1912 

SiES,  Alice  Corbin  —  Spontaneous  and  Supervised  Play  in 
Childhood;  Macmillan,  1922 

SissoN,  E.  O.  —  Essentials  of  Character;  Macmillan,  1910 

Slaughter,  J.  W.  —  The  Adolescent;   Macmillan,  1917 

Sloane,  Thomas  O.  —  Electric  Toy  Making  for  Amateurs; 
Henley 

Slosson,  E.  E.  —  Coeducation  from  Another  Standpoint;  In- 
dependent, IN,  366-370,  February  12,  1903 

Smith,  Hannah  —  Music  and  How  It  Came  to  Be  What  It  Is; 
Scribner,  1898 

Smith,  Nora  A.  —  Training  the  Imagination;  Outlook,  LXIV, 
February  24,  1900 

Smith,  Theodatb  L.  —  Obstinacy  and  Obedience;  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  XII,  27-54,  1905 

Sneath  and  Hodges  —  Moral  Training  in  School  and  Home; 
Macmillan,  1913 

Spencer,  Herbert  —  Education;   Appleton 
Starch,  Daniel  —  Educational  Measurements;   Macmillan, 
1916 
Educational  Psychology;  Macmillan,  1911 
Some  Experimental  Data  on  the  Value  of  Studying  Modern 
Languages;  School  Review,  XXIII,  697-703,  1915 

Starr,  Louis  —  The  Adolescent  Period;  Blakiston,  1915 

Stedman,  Henry  R.  —  Mental  Pitfalls  of  Adolescence;  Bos- 
ton Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  CLXXII,  695-713, 
November,  1916 

Stern,  Adolph  —  Parent  and  Child;  American  Medicine 
(New  Series),  XIII,  145-151,  March,  1918 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  257 

Stern,  W.  —  The  Supernormal  Child: 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  II,  143-148,  181- 
190,  1911 

Stout,  John  Elbert  —  High  School:  Its  Function,  Organi- 
zation, and  Administration;   Heath,  1914 

Stowell,  William  L.  —  Sex  for  Parents  and  Teachers;  Mac- 
millan,  1921 

Strecker,  Edward  A.  —  Mai-Behavior  Viewed  as  an  Out- 
Patient  Mental  and  Nervous  Clinic  Problem;  Mental 
Hygiene,  V,  225-238,  April,  1921 

Sully,  James  —  Studies  of  Childhood;  Appleton,  1914 

Surette,  T.  W.  —  Music  and  Life:  A  Study  of  the  Relations 
Between  Ourselves  and  Music;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1917 

Swift,  Edgar  J.  —  Mind  in  the  Making;  Scribner,  1908 
Youth  and  the  Race;  Scribner,  1915 

Taft,  Jessie  —  Some  Problems  in  Delinquency;  Papers  and 
Proceedings  American  Sociological  Society,  XVI,  1922 

Taft,  Linwood  —  The  Technique  of  Pageantry;  Barnes,  1921 

Tanner,  A.  E.  —  Adler's  Theory  of  Minderwertigkeit;  Peda- 
gogical Seminary,  XXIII,  204-217,  1915 
The  Child;  Rand  McNally,  1915 

Terman,  L.  M.  —  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child;  Houghton 
Mifflin,  1914 
The  Intelligence  of  School  Children;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1919 
The  Measurement  of  Intelligence;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1916 

Terman,  L.  M.  and  Anonymous  —  An  Experiment  in 
Infant  Education;  Journal  Applied  Psychology,  II,  219- 
228,  1918 

Thaler,  William  H.  —  Modern  Ideals  of  Child  Behavior,  and 
their  Influence  on  American  Ldfe;  Education,  XLI,  141- 
151,  November,  1920 

Thatcher,  E,  —  Making  Tin  Can  Toys;  Lippincott,  1919 


258  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Thomson,  Helen  B.  —  The  Mental  Traits  of  Sex;  University 
of  Cambridge  Press,  1903 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  —  Individuality;  Houghton  Mifflin,  1911 
Education  for  Initiative  and  Originality;   Teachers   College 

Record,  XVHI,  1916 
Educational  Psychology;  Briefer  Course.    Teachers  College, 

Columbia  University,  1914 
Principles  of  Teaching  Based  on  Psychology;  Seiler,  1920 

Thurston,  Henry  W.  —  Delinquency  and  Spare  Time; 
Cleveland  Foundation,  1918 

Tracy,  Frederick  —  The  Psychology  of  Adolescence; 
Macmillan,  1920 

Tredgold,  a.  F.  —  Mental  Deficiency;  Wood,  1920 

Trettien,  a.  W.  —  Psychology  of  the  Language  Interest  of 
Children;  Pedagogical  Seminary,  XI,  113-177,  1904 

Twbddell,  F.  —  How  to  Take  Care  of  the  Baby;  Bobbs 
Merrill,  1915 

U.S.  Children's  Bureau  —  Bulletins  on  Mal-Nutrition, 
Milk,  Infant  Care,  etc.;  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  —  Bulletins  on  Corn 
Clubs,  Poidtry  Clubs,  etc.;  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

U.S.  Public  Health  Service  —  The  Parent's  Part;  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Verrill,  a.  Hyatt  —  Pets  for  Pleasure  and  Profit;  Scribner, 
1915 

Vincent,  Swale  —  Glands  of  Internal  Secretions;  Arnold, 
1912 

Waddle,  C.  W.  —  An  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology; 
Houghton  Mifflin,  1918 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  259 

Wallas,  Graham  —  The  Great  Society;  Macmillan,  1919 

Wallin,  J.  E.  W.  —  Handicapped  Children;  American  Jour- 
nal of  School  Hygiene,  IV,  29-53,  September,  1920 
Mental  Health  of  School  Child;  Yale  University  Press,  1914 
Problems  of  Suhnormality;  World  Book,  1917 

Watson,  John  B.  —  Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a 
Behaviorist;  Lippincott,  1919 
The  Psychology  of  Infancy;  Scientific  Monthly,  December, 
1921 
Wedekind,  Frank  —  Awakening  of  Spring;  Browni,  1910 

Whipple,   Guy   M.  —  Classes  for  Gifted   Children;   Public 
School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  111.,  1919 

Intelligence  Tests  and  Their  Use;  Twenty-First  Yearbook 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Public 
School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  111.,  1922 

Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests;  Warwick  and  York, 
1915 
White,    William   A.  —  Childhood,  The   Golden  Period  for 
Mental  Hygiene;  Mental  Hygiene,  IV,  257-267,  April, 
1920 

Mental  Hygiene  of  Childhood;  Little  Brown,  1919 

White,  Mary  —  The  Child's  Rainy  Day  Book;  Doubleday 
Page,  1905 

Whitehead,  James  R.  (Editor)  —  Folk  Songs  and  Other 
Songs  for  Children;  Ditson,  1903 

Williams,  T.  A.  —  Fear  and  Its  Cure;  National  Education 
Association  Proceedings  and  Addresses,  1914,  836 

WiLTSE,  Sara  E.  —  Children's  Collections;  Pedagogical  Sem- 
inary, I,  234-237,  1893 

Winch,  W.  H.  —  Some  Relations  Between  Substance  Memory 
and  Productive  Imagination  in  School  Children;  British 
Journal  of  Psychology,  IV,  95-125,  May,  1911 


260  OUTLINES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

WiNTBRBURN,  F.  A.  —  The  Mother  in  Education;  McBride, 
1914 

WiTHiNGTON,  Robert  —  English  Pageantry;  Harvard  Uni- 
versity Press,  1918 

WooDROW,  Herbert  W.  —  Brightness  and  Dullness  in 
Children;  Lippincott,  1919 

Woods,  Alice  (Editor)  —  Advance  in  Coeducation;  Sidgwick 
and  Jackson,  1919 

WooDWORTH,  Robert  S.  —  Dynamic  Psychology;  Columbia 
University  Press,  1918 
Psychology — A  Study  of  Mental  Life;  Holt,  1921 

WooLLEY,  Helen  Thompson  —  Readings  in  Vocational 
Guidance  (Meyer  Bloomfield):  Charting  Children  in 
Cincinnati;  Ginn,  1915 

Wright,  John  Button  —  What  the  Mother  of  a  Deaf  Child 
Ought  to  Know;  Stokes,  1915 

ZiCK,  H.  —  Teaching  Modern  Languages  in  European 
Secondary  Schools;  Educational  Review,  LI,  488-501,  1916 


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